Researchers must find a sustainable way of providing the power our modern lifestyles demand.

Building better batteries

The increasing interest in energy storage for the grid can be attributed to multiple factors, including the capital costs of managing peak demands, the investments needed for grid reliability, and the integration of renewable energy sources. Although existing energy storage is dominated by pumped hydroelectric, there is the recognition that battery systems can offer a number of high-value opportunities, provided that lower costs can be obtained. The battery systems reviewed here include sodium-sulfur batteries that are commercially available for grid applications, redox-flow batteries that offer low cost, and lithium-ion batteries whose development for commercial electronics and electric vehicles is being applied to grid storage.

Electrical Energy Storage for the Grid: A Battery of Choices

Li-ion batteries have transformed portable electronics and will play a key role in the electrification of transport. However, the highest energy storage possible for Li-ion batteries is insufficient for the long-term needs of society, for example, extended-range electric vehicles. To go beyond the horizon of Li-ion batteries is a formidable challenge; there are few options. Here we consider two: Li-air (O(2)) and Li-S. The energy that can be stored in Li-air (based on aqueous or non-aqueous electrolytes) and Li-S cells is compared with Li-ion; the operation of the cells is discussed, as are the significant hurdles that will have to be overcome if such batteries are to succeed. Fundamental scientific advances in understanding the reactions occurring in the cells as well as new materials are key to overcoming these obstacles. The potential benefits of Li-air and Li-S justify the continued research effort that will be needed.

Li-O2 and Li-S batteries with high energy storage.

Energy density is the main property of rechargeable batteries that has driven the entire technology forward in past decades. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) now surpass other, previously competitive battery types (for example, lead–acid and nickel metal hydride) but still require extensive further improvement to, in particular, extend the operation hours of mobile IT devices and the driving mileages of all-electric vehicles. In this Review, we present a critical overview of a wide range of post-LIB materials and systems that could have a pivotal role in meeting such demands. We divide battery systems into two categories: near-term and long-term technologies. To provide a realistic and balanced perspective, we describe the operating principles and remaining issues of each post-LIB technology, and also evaluate these materials under commercial cell configurations. Post-lithium-ion batteries are reviewed with a focus on their operating principles, advantages and the challenges that they face. The volumetric energy density of each battery is examined using a commercial pouch-cell configuration to evaluate its practical significance and identify appropriate research directions.

Promise and reality of post-lithium-ion batteries with high energy densities

Graphene and related two-dimensional crystals and hybrid systems showcase several key properties that can address emerging energy needs, in particular for the ever growing market of portable and wearable energy conversion and storage devices. Graphene's flexibility, large surface area, and chemical stability, combined with its excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, make it promising as a catalyst in fuel and dye-sensitized solar cells. Chemically functionalized graphene can also improve storage and diffusion of ionic species and electric charge in batteries and supercapacitors. Two-dimensional crystals provide optoelectronic and photocatalytic properties complementing those of graphene, enabling the realization of ultrathin-film photovoltaic devices or systems for hydrogen production. Here, we review the use of graphene and related materials for energy conversion and storage, outlining the roadmap for future applications.

Graphene, related two-dimensional crystals, and hybrid systems for energy conversion and storage

Part 1 Principles of operation: basic concepts electrochemical principles and reactions factors affecting battery performance standardization of batteries battery design selection and application of batteries. Part 2 Primary batteries: zinc-carbon (Leclanche) cells magnesium and aluminium cells alkaline-manganese dioxide cells mercuric oxide cells silver oxide cells zinc/air cells lithium cells solid electrolyte batteries. Part 3 Reserve batteries: magnesium water-activated batteries spin-dependent reserve batteries liquid ammonia systems lithium anode reserve batteries thermal batteries. Part 4 Secondary batteries: lead acid batteries industrial nickel-cadmium batteries vented nickel-cadmium batteries sealed nickel-cadmium batteries nickel-zinc batteries iron electrode batteries silver-oxide batteries nickel-hydrogen batteries nickel-metal hydride batteries rechargeable alkaline-manganese dioxide batteries. Part 5 Advanced battery systems: ambient temperature lithium batteries zinc/bromine batteries metal/air batteries lithium/iron sulphide batteries sodium beta batteries.

David Linden

Papers

Handbook Of Batteries