Informal science is a burgeoning field that operates across a broad range of venues and envisages learning outcomes for individuals, schools, families, and society. The evidence base that describes informal science, its promise, and effects is informed by a range of disciplines and perspectives, including field-based research, visitor studies, and psychological and anthropological studies of learning. Learning Science in Informal Environments draws together disparate literatures, synthesizes the state of knowledge, and articulates a common framework for the next generation of research on learning science in informal environments across a life span. Contributors include recognized experts in a range of disciplines--research and evaluation, exhibit designers, program developers, and educators. They also have experience in a range of settings--museums, after-school programs, science and technology centers, media enterprises, aquariums, zoos, state parks, and botanical gardens. Learning Science in Informal Environments is an invaluable guide for program and exhibit designers, evaluators, staff of science-rich informal learning institutions and community-based organizations, scientists interested in educational outreach, federal science agency education staff, and K-12 science educators.

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Learning science in informal environments : people, places, and pursuits

This study examines the development of ways of documenting and portraying science teachers' pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). As a result of a longitudinal study into science teachers' pedagogical content knowledge, a method is developed for capturing and portraying PCK that comprises two important elements. The first is linked to the particular science content, termed Content Representation (CoRe), and the second is linked to teaching practice, termed Professional and Pedagogical experience Repertoire (PaP-eR). Through this approach new understandings of PCK emerge that are of interest in terms of both academic (knowledge building about PCK) and teaching perspectives. This study includes a full CoRe and one PaP-eR and fully demonstrates how these two elements interact to begin to portray science teachers' pedagogical content knowledge. 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 41: 370-391, 2004

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In search of pedagogical content knowledge in science: Developing ways of articulating and documenting professional practice

The present paper thoroughly examines how one can effectively bridge in-school and out-of-school learning. The first part discusses the difficulty in defining out-of-school learning. It proposes to distinguish three types of learning: formal, informal, and non-formal. The second part raises the question of whether out-of-school learning should be dealt with in the in-school system, in view of the fact that we experience informal learning anyway as well as considering the disadvantages and difficulties teachers are confronted with when planning and carrying out scientific fieldtrips. The voices of the teachers, the students, and the non-formal institution staff are heard to provide insights into the problem. The third part discusses the cognitive and affective aspects of non-formal learning. The fourth part presents some models explaining scientific fieldtrip learning and based on those models, suggests a novel explanation. The fifth part offers some recommendations of how to bridge in and out-of-school learning. The paper closes with some practical ideas as to how one can bring the theory described in the paper into practice. It is hoped that this paper will provide educators with an insight so that they will be able to fully exploit the great potential that scientific field trips may offer.

https://www.fatihegitim.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/bridging-in-school-and-out-of-school-learning-eshach-2007.pdf

Bridging In-school and Out-of-school Learning: Formal, Non-Formal, and Informal Education

This paper examines the experiences reported by scientists and graduate students regarding the experiences that first engaged them in science. The interviews analysed for this paper come from Project Crossover, a mixed‐methods study of the transition from graduate student to PhD scientist in the fields of chemistry and physics. This analysis involved review of 116 interviews collected from graduate students and scientists and focused on the timing, source, and nature of their earliest interest in science. The majority (65%) of participants reported that their interest in science began before middle school. Females were more likely to report that their interest was sparked by school‐related activities, while most males recounted self‐initiated activities. Our findings indicate that current policy efforts (which focus on high school science reform) to increase the numbers of students studying in the science fields, may be misguided.

Eyeballs in the Fridge: Sources of early interest in science

Conceptualising the heterogeneity of research-based spin-offs: A multi-dimensional taxonomy

Museums are best considered as venues for informal learning and yet the authors' observations were that most school classes that visit museums are restricted and structured, the students not being provided with optimal opportunities to learn in an informal manner. Although research has addressed some features of successful school group visits to museums, such as preparation and orientation, emphasis on first-hand experience, and use of worksheets, there has been little research on the role of the class teacher in facilitating learning during excursions. This study investigated strategies used by class teachers before, during, and following excursions to two venues in Sydney, Australia, offering opportunities for learning science in an informal setting. The sample chosen for the study comprised 12 school groups involving 29 teachers and 735 students in 30 classes ranging from grade 5 to grade 10. Data were collected through observation and interviews before, during, and 2–3 weeks after the visit. The results indicate that class teachers used mainly task-oriented teaching practices and made little effort to link topics being studied at school and the museum. Little congruence was apparent between the practices observed and what the literature suggested for effective planning and management of school excursions. The authors propose a framework to guide teachers in planning learning-oriented excursions based on a synthesis of knowledge of natural learning behaviors exhibited by family groups in museums and lessons from constructivist theories of learning, together with strategies reported in the literature and confirmed by this study as contributing to learning on school excursions to museums. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sci Ed81:763–779, 1997.

Moving from task‐oriented to learning‐oriented strategies on school excursions to museums

Through a comparison of the widely-held traditional view of science with the 
constructivist view of science, we argue that the constructivist view of the content 
of science has important implications for classroom teaching and learning. This 
alternative view of science concepts as human constructs, scrutinized by application of the rules of the game of science, raises many challenges for teachers. 
Reconceptualization of teachers' views of the nature of science and of learning 
in science is important for a constructivist pedagogy. We argue here that open 
discussion of the 'rules of the game' of science would contribute to better learning 
in the classroom, since learners would be better equipped to change their existing 
concepts, by knowing more about the nature of science itself.

The Constructivist Paradigm and Some Implications for Science Content and Pedagogy

The project reported in this paper was designed to do a number of things. First there has been an exploration of the purposes which could be achieved by involving children in drawing in junior primary science classes. Second, the study involved the exploration of teaching strategies which could facilitate the achievement of those purposes, this exploration being classroom based whilst meeting the requirements for research.

Drawing during science activity in the primary school

There is growing concern about falling levels of student engagement with school science, as evidenced by studies of student attitudes, and decreasing participation at the post compulsory level. One major response to this, the Australian School Innovation in Science, Technology and Mathematics (ASISTM) initiative, involves partnerships between schools and community and industry organisations in developing curriculum projects at the local level. This project fulfils many of the conditions advocated to engage students in learning in the sciences. ASISTM is underpinned by the notion of innovation. This paper describes the findings of case study research in which 16 ASISTM projects were selected as innovation exemplars. A definition of innovation and an innovation framework were developed, through which the case studies were analysed to make sense of the significance of the ideas and practices, participating actors, and outcomes of the projects. Through this analysis we argue that innovation is a powerful idea for framing curriculum development in the sciences at the local level that is generative for students and teachers, and that these ASISTM projects provide valuable models for engaging students, and for teacher professional learning.

A Curriculum Innovation Framework for Science, Technology and Mathematics Education

This paper reports a study of science graduates who are employed in positions outside their discipline specialisation The research was designed to uncover the reasons for them choosing to study science at university, the competencies they utilise in their work and their lives, and how these relate to their undergraduate education in science The study is seen as important in that already about one-half of science graduates are in such positions and it is argued that there is a need in scientific and technologically based societies to have a greater representation of such people in decision-making positions in government and industry The directions for the science degree that can be drawn from the data gathered are congruent with those arising from other relevant studies That is, attention should be paid to widely used skills, such as communication and problem-solving, and to developing an understanding of science within its social and ethical context An argument is mounted for considering the way the science degree is presented to potential students and to the general public

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David Symington

Papers

Moving from task‐oriented to learning‐oriented strategies on school excursions to museums

The Constructivist Paradigm and Some Implications for Science Content and Pedagogy

Drawing during science activity in the primary school

A Curriculum Innovation Framework for Science, Technology and Mathematics Education

The usefulness of a science degree: The `lost voices? of science trained professionals.