A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.

The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.

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Mindfulness is an attribute of consciousness long believed to promote well-being. This research provides a theoretical and empirical examination of the role of mindfulness in psychological well-being. The development and psychometric properties of the dispositional Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) are described. Correlational, quasi-experimental, and laboratory studies then show that the MAAS measures a unique quality of consciousness that is related to a variety of well-being constructs, that differentiates mindfulness practitioners from others, and that is associated with enhanced selfawareness. An experience-sampling study shows that both dispositional and state mindfulness predict self-regulated behavior and positive emotional states. Finally, a clinical intervention study with cancer patients demonstrates that increases in mindfulness over time relate to declines in mood disturbance and stress. Many philosophical, spiritual, and psychological traditions emphasize the importance of the quality of consciousness for the maintenance and enhancement of well-being (Wilber, 2000). Despite this, it is easy to overlook the importance of consciousness in human well-being because almost everyone exercises its primary capacities, that is, attention and awareness. Indeed, the relation between qualities of consciousness and well-being has received little empirical attention. One attribute of consciousness that has been much-discussed in relation to well-being is mindfulness. The concept of mindfulness has roots in Buddhist and other contemplative traditions where conscious attention and awareness are actively cultivated. It is most commonly defined as the state of being attentive to and aware of what is taking place in the present. For example, Nyanaponika Thera (1972) called mindfulness “the clear and single-minded awareness of what actually happens to us and in us at the successive moments of perception” (p. 5). Hanh (1976) similarly defined mindfulness as “keeping one’s consciousness alive to the present reality” (p. 11). Recent research has shown that the enhancement of mindfulness through training facilitates a variety of well-being outcomes (e.g., Kabat-Zinn, 1990). To date, however, there has been little work examining this attribute as a naturally occurring characteristic. Recognizing that most everyone has the capacity to attend and to be aware, we nonetheless assume (a) that individuals differ in their propensity or willingness to be aware and to sustain attention to what is occurring in the present and (b) that this mindful capacity varies within persons, because it can be sharpened or dulled by a variety of factors. The intent of the present research is to reliably identify these inter- and intrapersonal variations in mindfulness, establish their relations to other relevant psychological constructs, and demonstrate their importance to a variety of forms of psychological well-being.

/pdf/the-benefits-of-being-present-mindfulness-and-its-role-in-3carfso5c8.pdf

The Benefits of Being Present: Mindfulness and Its Role in Psychological Well-Being

University of TorontoThe authors summarize 35 years of empirical research ongoal-setting theory. They describe the core ﬁndings of thetheory, the mechanisms by which goals operate, modera-tors of goal effects, the relation of goals and satisfaction,and the role of goals as mediators of incentives. Theexternal validity and practical signiﬁcance of goal-settingtheory are explained, and new directions in goal-settingresearch are discussed. The relationships of goal setting toother theories are described as are the theory’s limitations.

https://home.ubalt.edu/tmitch/642/articles syllabus/locke pract goal setting 2002 am psy.pdf

Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation

Lincoln, Yvonna, and Egon Guba, "Postpositivism and the Naturalist Paradigm," pp. 14-46 in Yvonna Lincoln and Egon Guba, Naturalistic Inquiry . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1985.*

Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology

Participation motivation in youth sports.

The Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) was developed as a multidimensional, sport-specific measure of individual differences in sport achievement orientation. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed a stable, three-factor structure across three separate samples of university and high school students. The three separate but related subscales of competitiveness, win, and goal orientation demonstrate high internal consistency and stability over time. The SOQ competitiveness score differentiates students in competitive activities from those in noncompetitive activities, providing evidence for construct validity. The overall factor stability, reliability and validity evidence suggests that the SOQ can be a valuable measure for the investigation of competitiveness and achievement behavior in sport and exercise settings.

Development of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire

Chapter 1 The Scope of Sport and Exercise Psychology Chapter 2 History of Sport and Exercise Physiology Chapter 3 Approaches to Understanding and Using Sport and Exercise Psychology Chapter 4 Personality Chapter 5 Attention and Cognitive Skills Chapter 6 Self-Perceptions Chapter 7 Behavioral Approaches Chapter 8 Motivational Orientations: Achievement and Competitiveness Chapter 9 Cognitive Approaches to Motivation Chapter 10 Participation Motivation Chapter 11 Emotion Models and Research Chapter 12 Emotional Control and Stress Management Chapter 13 Social Influence Chapter 14 Aggression and Character Development Chapter 15 Group Dynamics and Interpersonal Relationships Chapter 16 Gender, Diversity and Cultural Competence

Psychological dynamics of sport and exercise.

Physical activity (PA) professionals and participants recognize enhanced quality of life (QoL) as a benefit of and motivator for PA. However, QoL measures are often problematic and rarely consider the participants'perspective. This paper focuses on recent findings from a larger project on the role of QoL in PA and health promotion. More specifically, we focus on the views of participants and potential participants to better understand the relationship of PA and QoL. In earlier stages of the project we began with a conceptual model of QoL and developed a survey. We now focus on participants' views and ask two questions: 1) what is QoL? and 2) how does PA relate to QoL? We first asked those questions of a large sample of university students and community participants as open-ended survey items, and then asked focus groups of community participants. Overall, participants' responses reflected the multidimensional, integrative QoL model, but the responses and patterns provided information that may not be picked up with typical survey measures. Findings suggest that PA contributes to multiple aspects of QoL, that social and emotional benefits are primary motivators and outcomes for participants, and that the meaning of QoL and PA benefits is subjective and contextualized, varying across individuals and settings. Programs that directly target and highlight the multiple dimensions and integrative QoL, while considering the individual participants and contexts, may enhance both PA motivation and participants' health and QoL.

/pdf/physical-activity-and-quality-of-life-1lhyhm3ho2.pdf

Diane L. Gill

Papers

Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology

Participation motivation in youth sports.

Development of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire

Psychological dynamics of sport and exercise.

Physical Activity and Quality of life.