Infestations with the cattle tick, Rhipicephalus microplus, constitute the most important ectoparasite problem for cattle production in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, resulting in major economic losses. The control of R. microplus is mostly based on the use of conventional acaricides and macrocyclic lactones. However, the intensive use of such compounds has resulted in tick populations that exhibit resistance to all major acaricide chemical classes. Consequently, there is a need for the development of alternative approaches, possibly including the use of animal husbandry practices, synergized pesticides, rotation of acaricides, pesticide mixture formulations, manual removal of ticks, selection for host resistance, nutritional management, release of sterile male hybrids, environmental management, plant species that are unfavourable to ticks, pasture management, plant extracts, essential oils and vaccination. Integrated tick management consists of the systematic combination of at least two control technologies aiming to reduce selection pressure in favour of acaricide-resistant individuals, while maintaining adequate levels of animal production. The purpose of this paper is to present a current review on conventional acaricide and macrocyclic lactone resistance for better understanding and control of resistant ticks with particular emphasis on R. microplus on cattle.

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Strategies for the control of Rhipicephalus microplus ticks in a world of conventional acaricide and macrocyclic lactone resistance

Arthropods are dangerous vectors of agents of deadly diseases, which may hit as epidemics or pandemics in the increasing world population of humans and animals. Among them, ticks transmit more pathogen species than any other group of blood-feeding arthropods worldwide. Thus, the effective and eco-friendly control of tick vectors in a constantly changing environment is a crucial challenge. A number of novel routes have been attempted to prevent and control tick-borne diseases, including the development of (i) vaccines against viruses vectored by ticks; (ii) pheromone-based control tools, with special reference to the “lure and kill” techniques; (iii) biological control programmes relying on ticks’ natural enemies and pathogens; and (iv) the integrated pest management practices aimed at reducing tick interactions with livestock. However, the extensive employment of acaricides and tick repellents still remains the two most effective and ready-to-use strategies. Unfortunately, the first one is limited by the rapid development of resistance in ticks, as well as by serious environmental concerns. On the other hand, the exploitation of plants as sources of effective tick repellents is often promising. Here, we reviewed current knowledge concerning the effectiveness of plant extracts as acaricides or repellents against tick vectors of public health importance, with special reference to Ixodes ricinus, Ixodes persulcatus, Amblyomma cajennense, Haemaphysalis bispinosa, Haemaphysalis longicornis, Hyalomma anatolicum, Hyalomma marginatum rufipes, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus, Rhipicephalus pulchellus, Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Rhipicephalus turanicus. Eighty-three plant species from 35 botanical families were selected. The most frequent botanical families exploited as sources of acaricides and repellents against ticks were Asteraceae (15 % of the selected studies), Fabaceae (9 %), Lamiaceae (10 %), Meliaceae (5 %), Solanaceae (6 %) and Verbenaceae (5 %). Regression equation analyses showed that the literature grew by approximately 20 % per year (period: 2005–2015). Lastly, in the final section, insights for future research are discussed. We focused on some caveats for future data collection and analysis. Current critical points mainly deal with (a) not uniform methods used, which prevent proper comparison of the results; (b) inaccurate tested concentrations, frequently 100 % concentration corresponded to the gross extract, where the exact amounts of extracted substances are unknown; and (c) not homogeneous size of tested tick instars and species. Overall, the knowledge summarized in this review may be helpful for comparative screening among extensive numbers of plant-borne preparations, in order to develop newer and safer tick control tools.

Tick repellents and acaricides of botanical origin: a green roadmap to control tick-borne diseases?

The evolution of resistance of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus to synthetic acaricides has given rise to the need for new scientific investigations on alternative ways to control this tick. In this regard, various studies on plants have been developed in an attempt to find extracts with acaricidal properties. Evaluations on plant extracts for controlling R. (B.) microplus have grown intensely over the last decade. There are many advantages from using plant extracts: for example, they can be used in organic cattle farming or even replace synthetic acaricides and they are associated with lower environmental and food contamination, slower development of resistance and lower toxicity to animals and humans. In vitro studies on plant extracts have shown promising results, but most of these extracts have not been tested on animals to validate their use. Difficulties in preparing proper formulations, differences in the chemical composition of plants of the same species due to extrinsic and intrinsic factors and sparse information on active acaricide compounds are hindrances that need to be addressed in order to enable progress within this scientific field.

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Perspectives for the use of plant extracts to control the cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus

https://www.scielo.br/pdf/rbpv/v20n2/01.pdf

Perspectives for the use of plant extracts to control the cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus Perspectivas para o uso de extratos de plantas para o controle do carrapato de bovinos Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus

The control of tick species that affect animal production is vital for the economic welfare of the cattle industry. This study focused on testing the acaricidal activity of the essential oil from the leaves and stems of Tagetes minuta against several Brazilian tick species, including Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus, Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Amblyomma cajennense and Argas miniatus. The chemical composition of the essential oil was determined by chromatography and spectroscopy analyses, which revealed the presence of monoterpenes. The adult immersion test (AIT) and the larval packet test (LPT) were used to evaluate the efficacy of T. minuta essential oil in tick management at concentrations of 2.5, 5, 10, 20 and 40%. The results demonstrated that the T. minuta essential oil had over 95% efficacy against four species of ticks at a concentration of 20%. These results suggest that the essential oil of T. minuta could be used as an environmentally friendly acaricide.

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Chemical identification of Tagetes minuta Linnaeus (Asteraceae) essential oil and its acaricidal effect on ticks

Organic plant extracts and emulsified oil of Azadirachta indica A. Juss (Meliaceae) (neem) were studied to evaluate its effects in control of engorged females of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini, 1887) in the laboratory. Hexane and alcoholic organic extracts, 2% (weight/volume) were used in tests of immersion for 5 minutes, prepared with seeds, solubilized in dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) to 1%. The experiment was entirely randomized, consisting of 6 treatments and 5 replicates, each represented by 5 ticks. Control groups consisted of untreated females. Based on the results of this work, we can indicate that the seed extract (hexanic fraction) and oleo emulsionavel I¹ concentration to 2% have significant adjuvant potential to control the cattle tick, because, cause the mortality in the first days after the treatment and interfere in the reproduction, showing to be an alternative to acaricides normally used.

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[Action of extract and oil neem in the control of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini, 1887) (Acari: Ixodidae) in laboratory]

Organic plant extracts and emulsified oil of Azadirachta indica A. Juss (Meliaceae) (neem) were studied to evaluate its effects in control of engorged females of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini, 1887) in the laboratory. Hexane and alcoholic organic extracts, 2% (weight/volume) were used in tests of immersion for 5 minutes, prepared with seeds, solubilized in dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) to 1%. The experiment was entirely randomized, consisting of 6 treatments and 5 replicates, each represented by 5 ticks. Control groups consisted of untreated females. Based on the results of this work, we can indicate that the seed extract (hexanic fraction) and óleo emulsionável I¹ concentration to 2% have significant adjuvant potential to control the cattle tick, because, cause the mortality in the first days after the treatment and interfere in the reproduction, showing to be an alternative to acaricides normally used.

/pdf/acao-de-extrato-e-oleo-de-nim-no-controle-de-rhipicephalus-1s594bh85q.pdf

Ação de extrato e óleo de nim no controle de Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini, 1887) (Acari: Ixodidae) em laboratório Action of extract and oil neem in the control of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini, 1887) (Acari: Ixodidae) in laboratory

The objective of this study was to investigate the natural occurrence of T. alecto , an egg parasitoid of Diatraea spp. in sugar cane in the State of Alagoas . The eggs of D. flavipennella and D. saccharalis presented 47.9% and 30.0% with characteristics of parasitism, and viabilities of 92.4% and 89.9%, respectively. The presence of this natural enemy suggests a potential for natural regulation of Diatraea spp .

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Ocorrência de Telenomus alecto Crawford, 1914 (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) em ovos de Diatraea spp. (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) em cana-de-açúcar no estado de Alagoas, Brasil Occurrence of Telenomus alecto Crawford, 1914 (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) in eggs of Diatraea spp. (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) in sugar cane in the state of Alagoas, Brazil

Este trabalho teve por objetivo identificar a diversidade da mirmecofauna em uma area de sabia no municipio de Rio Largo, Alagoas. Foram observadas 17 especies de formigas pertencentes a seis subfamilias. Atta opaciceps (Borgmeier, 1939) foi a especie mais abundante. Em seguida, Camponotus blandus (Fr. Smith, 1858), Camponotus atriceps (Fr. Smith, 1858) e Pheidole sp.2 gp. aberrans.

Diego Olympio Peixoto Lopes

Papers

[Action of extract and oil neem in the control of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini, 1887) (Acari: Ixodidae) in laboratory]

Ação de extrato e óleo de nim no controle de Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini, 1887) (Acari: Ixodidae) em laboratório Action of extract and oil neem in the control of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini, 1887) (Acari: Ixodidae) in laboratory

MIRMECOFAUNA EM SABIÁ (Mimosa caesalpiniaefolia Benth) (FABACEAE) EM RIO LARGO, ESTADO DE ALAGOAS