of research that investigates the nature and role of motivation in the L2 learning process. Much of this research has been initiated and inspired by two Canadian psychologists, Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert (see 34), who, together with their colleagues and students, grounded motivation research in a social psychological framework (for recent summaries, see 33; 35). Gardner and his associates also established sci-

Motivation and Motivating in the Foreign Language Classroom

Why do some students seek, while others avoid, second language (L2) communication? Many language teachers have encountered students high in linguistic competence who are unwilling to use their L2 for communication whereas other students, with only minimal linguistic knowledge, seem to communicate in the L2 whenever possible. Despite excellent communicative competence, spontaneous and sustained use of the L2 is not ensured. A colleague, who teaches a L2 and whose L2 competence is excellent, is well known to avoid “like the plague” L2 communication in social settings. A related observation is that many learners have noticed that their willingness to communicate (WTC) varies considerably over time and across situations. Our aim in this article is twofold. First we wish to provide an account of the linguistic, communicative, and social psychological variables that might affect one's “willingness to communicate.” As demonstrated in the text below, and examination of WTC offers the opportunity to integrate psychological, linguistic, and communicative approaches to L2 research that typically have been independent of each other. We view the WTC model as having the potential to provide a useful interface between these disparate lines of inquiry. Our second goal is to suggest potential relations among these variables by outlining a comprehensive conceptual model that may be useful in describing, explaining, and predicting L2 communication. In an effort to move beyond linguistic or communicative competence as the primary goal of language instruction, this article represents an overt attempt to combine these disparate approaches in a common theme, that is, proposing WTC as the primary goal of language instruction.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/330224

Conceptualizing Willingness to Communicate in a L2: A Situational Model of L2 Confidence and Affiliation

The paper argues that grammar correction in L2 writing classes should be abandoned, for the following reasons: (a) Substantial research shows it to be ineffective and none shows it to be helpful in any interesting sense; (b) for both theoretical and practical reasons, one can expect it to be ineffective; and (c) it has harmful effects. I also consider and reject a number of arguments previously offered in favor of grammar correction.

/pdf/the-case-against-grammar-correction-in-l2-writing-classes-43x7y7h2p3.pdf

The case against grammar correction in L2 writing classes

does Mary Ellen want to learn French? What motivates Yu Jia to learn English in China? What is the reason for Maury's interest and effort in Japanese? Why does Louise work so hard at learning Russian? What does Eyhab think he will achieve in studying English in the US? The answers to these questions are important, because motivation is considered by many to be one of the main determining factors in success in developing a second or foreign language (34), both referred to as L2. Motivation determines the extent of active, personal involvement in L2 learning. Conversely, unmotivated students are insufficiently involved and therefore unable to develop their potential L2 skills.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/329249.pdf

Language Learning Motivation: Expanding the Theoretical Framework

This chapter considers the literature on language learning anxiety in an effort to clarify the relationship between anxiety and second language learning. It will first argue that langua ge anxiety is a specific anxietyrather than a tra it anxietyand discuss how this conceptualization has helped clarify the research literature. After Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) proposed that a specific anxiety construct which they called Fore ign Langu age An xiety was r espo nsible fo r stud entsunco mfor table experiences in langua ge classes and o ffered an instrum ent, the Foreign Langu age Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), to measu re this anxiety, findings concerning anxiety and language achieve ment have be en relatively uniform, indicating a consistent moderate negative relationship between anxiety and achievement. However, some rese archers (Sp arks and Gans chow and the ir colleagues) have suggested that poor langu age learning is a cause r ather than a resu lt of language anxiety. This review conclud es that anxiety is indeed a cau se of poo r language learning in some individuals and discusses po ssible source s of this anxiety, including difficulty in authentic self-presentatio n and various langu age teaching pra ctices. In addition, it reports on new trends in language anxiety research that attempt to identify aspects of language learning (e.g., reading anxiety or writing anxiety) which provoke anxiety for some individuals.

Language anxiety and achievement

given to language learners and their perspectives, motivations, beliefs about language learning, learning styles, learning strategies, and language anxieties.1 Regardless of method, we know that learners need to adopt attitudes and strategies that pay off in terms of low anxiety, high motivation, and ultimately in the ability to convey information and communicate ideas and feelings. One of the current challenges in second and foreign language teaching is to provide students with a learner-centered, low-anxiety classroom environment. In our push to create such an environment we need to consult

Creating a Low‐Anxiety Classroom Environment: What Does Language Anxiety Research Suggest?

Language anxiety is becoming an important area of research in our profession. Debilitating language anxiety can have profound consequences on the language learning process. The purpose of this study is to examine anxiety and speaking from the students' perspective. Do speaking activities indeed make students nervous? If so, what is it about speaking that makes students anxious? Which speaking activities make students particularly uncomfortable? Can instructors do anything to reduce anxiety, particularly speaking anxiety, in the classroom?

A questionnaire designed to identify sources of anxiety over speaking in the foreign language was administered to 135 university-level beginning Spanish students and 109 high school students. The questionnaire had three sections: the first one asked students to agree or disagree with twenty-four items related to language anxiety; the second section asked students to indicate their level of anxiety regarding certain in-class practices; the third section asked learners to identify instructor characteristics and instructor practices that helped reduce language anxiety. Results of the analysis of data suggest, among other things, that speaking in the foreign language in not exclusively the source of student anxiety, but that speaking in front of the class is. Furthermore, the instructor's relaxed and positive error-correction attitude can greatly reduce language anxiety. Additional suggestions for reducing language anxiety are offered

An Investigation of Students' Perspectives on Anxiety and Speaking

An edited compilation of articles in the field whose focus is to reduce anxiety in language learners. Text is appropriate for Graduate Teaching Methods course at all 4 Yr Schools.

Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to Classroom Implications

INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1 Dolly J. Young: Affect in Foreign Language and Second Language Learning: A Practical Guide to Creating a Low-Anxiety Classroom Atmosphere LANGUAGE ANXIETY THEORY AND RESEARCH CHAPTER 2 Dolly J. Young: A Perspective on Foreign Language Learning: From Body to Mind to Emotions CHAPTER 3 Peter D. MacIntyre: Language Anxiety: A Review of the Research for Language Teachers ATTENDING TO AFFECT WHILE DEVELOPING LANGUAGE SKILLS CHAPTER 4 James F. Lee: Clashes in L2 Reading: Research Versus Practice and Readers' Misconceptions CHAPTER 5 Iloni Leki: Techniques for Reducing Second Language Writing Anxiety CHAPTER 6 Bill VanPatten and William R. Glass: Grammar Learning as a Source of Language Anxiety: A Discussion CHAPTER 7 Anita Vogely: Addressing Listening Comprehension Anxiety CHAPTER 8 Elaine M. Phillips: Decreasing Language Anxiety: Practical Techniques for Oral Activities CHAPTER 9 Margaret Beauvois: Computer-Mediated Communication: Reducing Anxiety and Building Community LANGUAGE ANXIETY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES CHAPTER 10 Richard L. Sparks and Leonore Ganschow: Native Language Skills, Foreign Language Aptitude, and Anxiety About Foreign Language Learning CHAPTER 11 Christine M. Campbell: Language Anxiety in Men and Women: Dealing with Gender Difference in the Language Classroom CHAPTER 12 Rebecca L. Oxford: "Style Wars" as a Source of Anxiety in Language Classrooms CONCLUSION CHAPTER 13 Dolly J. Young: Giving Priority to the Language Learner First

Affect in Foreign Language and Second Language Learning: A Practical Guide to Creating a Low-Anxiety Classroom Atmosphere

The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) has developed an oral proficiency test, the Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI), which may become the official test of oral performance for prospective foreign language teachers in Texas. Professionals in foreign language education are raising concerns about the effect of anxiety on Oral Proficiency Interview ratings. The purpose of this study was to provide an assessment of how anxiety may influence scores on the OPI.

An examination of the relationship between anxiety and oral performance must take foreign language ability into account. In this study, subjects' foreign language proficiency was assessed through a Self-Appraisal of Language Proficiency questionnaire and a dictation test. Subjects' anxiety was assessed on the basis of four independent anxiety measures: the State Anxiety Inventory, the Cognitive Interference Questionnaire, a Self-Report of Anxiety, and a Foreign Language Anxiety Scale of Reactions.

A total of sixty subjects took the OPI at the University of Texas at Austin, Southwest Texas State University, or the University of Texas at El Paso. These subjects were either majors in French, German, or Spanish or prospective French, German, or Spanish teachers at one of these three institutions. The Self-Appraisal of Speaking Proficiency and the State Anxiety Inventory were administered before the OPI, and the other anxiety instruments were given immediately after it.

Results showed significant negative correlations between anxiety and the OPI, but once the effects of ability were accounted for, the correlations were no longer significant. In other words, once the effect of an individual's language proficiency was accounted for, oral performance no longer decreased as anxiety increased.

An important qualification that must be noted is that subjects were aware that the OPI in this study represented an unofficial administration of the test. Therefore, this study does not provide data on anxiety levels for official test situations.

Dolly Jesusita Young

Papers

Creating a Low‐Anxiety Classroom Environment: What Does Language Anxiety Research Suggest?

An Investigation of Students' Perspectives on Anxiety and Speaking

Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to Classroom Implications

Affect in Foreign Language and Second Language Learning: A Practical Guide to Creating a Low-Anxiety Classroom Atmosphere

The Relationship Between Anxiety and Foreign Language Oral Proficiency Ratings.