https://psycnet.apa.org/journals/rev/88/5/375.pdf

An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: I. An account of basic findings.

https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA157550.pdf

The TRACE model of speech perception.

INTERACTIVE MODELS OF READING appear to provide a more accurate conceptualization of reading performance than do strictly top-down or bottom-up models. When combined with an assumption of compensatory processing (that a deficit in any particular process will result in a greater reliance on other knowledge sources, regardless of their level in the processing hierarchy), interactive models provide a better account of the existing data on the use of orthographic structure and sentence context by good and poor readers. A review of the research literature seems to indicate that, beyond the initial stages of reading acquisition, superior reading ability is not associated with a greater tendency to use the redundancy inherent in natural language to speed word recognition. Instead, general comprehension strategies and rapid context-free word recognition appear to be the processes that most clearly distinguish good from poor readers.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/747348.pdf

Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual differences in the development of reading fluency

This article examines the role of attention and automaticity in auditory processing as revealed by event-related potential (ERP) research. An ERP component called the mismatch negativity , generated by the brain's automatic response to changes in repetitive auditory input, reveals that physical features of auditory stimuli are fully processed whether or not they are attended. It also suggests that there exist precise neuronal representations of the physical features of recent auditory stimuli, perhaps the traces underlying acoustic sensory (“echoic”) memory. A mechanism of passive attention switching in response to changes in repetitive input is also implicated. Conscious perception of discrete acoustic stimuli might be mediated by some of the mechanisms underlying another ERP component (NI), one sensitive to stimulus onset and offset. Frequent passive attentional shifts might accountforthe effect cognitive psychologists describe as “the breakthrough of the unattended” (Broadbent 1982), that is, that even unattended stimuli may be semantically processed, without assuming automatic semantic processing or late selection in selective attention. The processing negativity supports the early-selection theory and may arise from a mechanism for selectively attending to stimuli defined by certain features. This stimulus selection occurs in the form ofa matching process in which each input is compared with the “attentional trace,” a voluntarily maintained representation of the task-relevant features of the stimulus to be attended. The attentional mechanism described might underlie the stimulus-set mode of attention proposed by Broadbent. Finally, a model of automatic and attentional processing in audition is proposed that is based mainly on the aforementioned ERP components and some other physiological measures.

The role of attention in auditory information processing as revealed by event-related potentials and other brain measures of cognitive function

The purpose of this review is to formulate a revised model of information processing that takes into account recent research on memory storage, selective attention, effortful versus automatic processing, and the mutual constraints that these areas place on one another. One distinctive aspect of the proposed model is the inclusion of two phases of sensory storage in each modality. The first phase extends sensation for several hundred milliseconds, whereas the second phase is a vivid recollection of sensation. The mechanism of at least the longer phase is the activation of features in long-term memory, comparable to the mechanism of non-sensory, short-term storage. Another distinctive aspect of the model is that habituation/dishabituation and central executive processes together are assumed to determine the focus of attention, without the need for either an early or a late attentional filter. Research issues that contribute to a comparison of models are discussed.

Evolving conceptions of memory storage, selective attention, and their mutual constraints within the human information-processing system.

Backward recognition masking refers to the interference of a second sound on recognition of another sound presented earlier in time. Previous experiments have demonstrated backward recognition masking in an absolute judgment task. In those experiments, all of the experimental conditions were varied randomly within a test session. In the first experiment reported here, backward‐masking functions generated between blocks of trials were compared to those determined within an experimental session. The results showed backward masking using both experimental procedures. The next two experiments evaluate backward‐masking effects in a two‐interval forced‐choice task and a successive‐comparison task. Backward masking was observed in both experiments. The final experiment showed that selectively attending to the ear of the test tone presentation does not attenuate the backward‐masking effects of a second tone presented to the opposite ear.Subject Classification: 65.22, 65.58, 65.75.

Backward recognition masking.

Letter vs. word and word vs. nonword identification were compared, with redundancy adequately controlled. The processing time of the test st imulus was varied to provide a number of levels of correct performance. The first experiment showed that letters were recognized better when presented alone than when embedded in words. In the second experiment, the identification of letters in words did not differ from the identification of letters in nonwords. These results conflict with earlier findings that have shown that a letter is better identified in a word than in a nonword or presented alone. The dif fer ences in the experimental procedures indicate either that redundancy may not have been adequately controlled in the earlier studies or that some other process besides a perceptual one might account for the results.

Perception of letters, words, and nonwords.

Pitch can be conceptualized as a bidimensional quantity, reflecting both the overall pitch level of a tone (tone height) and its position in the octave (tone chroma). Though such a conceptualization has been well supported for perception of a single tone, it has been argued that the dimension of tone chroma is irrelevant in melodic perception. In the current study, melodies were subjected to structural transformations designed to evaluate the effects of interval magnitude, contour, tone height, and tone chroma. In two transformations, the component tones of a melody were displaced by octave intervals, either preserving or violating the pattern of changes in pitch direction (melodic contour). Replicating previous work, when contour was violated perception of the melody was severely disrupted. In contrast, when contour was preserved the melodies were identified as accurately as the untransformed melodies. In other transformations, a variety of forms of contour information were preserved, while eliminating information for absolute pitch and interval magnitude. The level of performance on all such transformations fell between the levels observed in the other two conditions. These results suggest that the bidimensional model of pitch is applicable to recognition of melodies as well as single tones. Moreover, the results argue that contour, as well as interval magnitude, is providing essential information for melodic perception.

/pdf/a-bidimensional-model-of-pitch-in-the-recognition-of-2envt8k6qt.pdf

A bidimensional model of pitch in the recognition of melodies

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses a psychological framework for speech perception. Scientists sometimes overcome complexity by analyzing an unmanageable problem into manageable subproblems. A naive speech perception model appears to give a reasonable description of the various processes and structures involved in a number of important phenomena. Faced with a speech stimulus, the listener must evaluate features of the sensory input and match these to pattern descriptions in memory. In accounting for certain phenomena, it is important to assume that the listener has information about the degree to which each feature is present in the speech sound. Similarly, the complexity of the sensory input argues for propositional descriptions of speech patterns and corresponding logical integration rules. This general framework allows for a natural description of the powerful contribution of both auditory and linguistic context. Whether or not this model proves to be ultimately correct, it should certainly serve as a valuable heuristic framework for research and theory in speech perception.

Speech Perception: A Framework for Research and Theory

Musical notes can be defined both in terms of their fundamental frequencies (tone height) and their positions in the musical octave (tone chroma). Although there is some evidence indicating that hoth tone height and chroma can contribute to tone perception, Deutsch 11969, 1972) suggested that chroma is not functional in melody recognition. By systematically transforming melodies so as to preserve one or another type of information, Idson and Massaro (1978) de~nonstrated that chroma was also functional in melody recognition. However, in the Idson and Massaro study, subjects repeatedly heard the same melodies and were asked to identify them out of a limited set of possibilities (forced-choice procedure). The repetition of melodies and the forced-choice procedure might have encouraged subjects to develop special recognition strategies. To preclude this possibility, subjects in the present experiments heard each melody only once and were not informed in advance of the possible melodies. When systematic transformations similar to those used by Idson and Massaro were applied to familiar melodies, similar results were found. Therefore, it is unlikely that special recognition strategies were responsible for the results of the Idson and Massaro (1978) study: tone chroma contributes to melody recognition in both types of experimental procedures. The functional role of tone chroma in melody recognition is consistent with the idea that octave generalization not only applies to l:he perception of single tones but also occurs in the perception of successive intervals.

/pdf/tone-chroma-is-functional-in-melody-recognition-4fa6rhgwaf.pdf

Dominic W. Massaro

Papers

Backward recognition masking.

Perception of letters, words, and nonwords.

A bidimensional model of pitch in the recognition of melodies

Speech Perception: A Framework for Research and Theory

Tone chroma is functional in melody recognition.