Progressive researches on IoT security: An exhaustive analysis from the perspective of protocols, vulnerabilities, and preemptive architectonics

Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANETs) are self-organizing wireless communication networks that allow vehicles to exchange traffic-related messages automatically with neigh-boring vehicles. The goals of VANETs are to aid road users and make traffic management more efficient. However, the open nature of the communication network medium that is used by VANETs exposes the messages in transit to security attacks and the information within to privacy breaches. Researchers proposed many security schemes in their attempt to solve the security and privacy issues in VANETs. However, most existing schemes suffer from high computation and communication overheads. We studied and analyzed the effect of one of the most common security attacks in VANETs, the replay attack. This paper presents the result of the study and analysis, as well as the survey of existing replay attack prevention schemes in VANETs.

Review of Prevention schemes for Replay Attack in Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANETs)

Although the launch of Internet Protocol version six (IPv6) addressed the issue of IPv4's address depletion, but also mandated the use of Internet Control Message Protocol version six (ICMPv6) messages in newly introduced features such as the Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP). This has exacerbated existing network attacks including ICMPv6-based Denial of Service (DoS) attacks and its variant form Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack. Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) aimed at tackling security issues raised by ICMPv6-based DoS and DDoS attacks have been reviewed by researchers and a general classification of existing IDSs was proposed as anomaly-based and signature-based. However, it is incredibly hard to see the overall picture of IDSs based on Machine Learning (ML) techniques with such a classification, as there is a lack of a more detailed view of the ML approach, classifiers, feature selection techniques, datasets, and different evaluation metrics. Nevertheless, recent developments in this relatively new field have not been covered such as ML-based IDSs using flow-based traffic representation. Therefore, this article specifically reviews and classifies IDSs based on ML techniques to detect ICMPv6-based DoS and DDoS attacks as single and hybrid classifiers. In addition, blockchain applicability in Collaborative IDS (CIDS) architecture based on the ensemble framework has been proposed as a solution to one of the open challenges for ICMPv6-based DoS and DDoS attacks detection problem. Moreover, this review also provides a classification of ICMPv6 vulnerabilities to DoS and DDoS attacks which would provide a reference resource for future researchers in this domain. To the best of the author's knowledge, this is the first review paper specifically focusing on IDSs based on ML techniques in this domain, as well as blockchain applicability as a possible research direction has been proposed to attract researcher's focus on building ensemble learning-based IDS models.

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ICMPv6-Based DoS and DDoS Attacks Detection Using Machine Learning Techniques, Open Challenges, and Blockchain Applicability: A Review

Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network (VANET) is an indispensable part of the Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) due to its abilities to enhance traffic management and safety. Many researchers have been focused on specific areas involving management and storage data, protocols standardization, network fragmentation, monitoring, and quality of service.  The benchmarks of security of VANET are studied and figured out in this paper. VANET provides the driver and passenger with the safety application as well as entertainment service. However, the communication between nodes in VANET is susceptible to security threats in both communication modes, which indicates the main hazard. In this paper, we identified different Man-In-The-Middle (MITM) attacks with various behaviors such as message tampering, message delaying, and message dropping, according to the literature. In this study, the essential background of VANET from architectural point of view and communication types are discussed. Then, the overview of MITM attack in VANET is presented. In addition, this paper thoroughly reviews the existing prevention schemes for MITM attack in VANET. This review paper reveals that there is still a need for a better and more efficient preventive scheme to address the MITM attack in VANET. This review paper could serve as evidence and reference in the development of any new security schemes for VANETs.

Review of Prevention Schemes for Man-In-The-Middle (MITM) Attack in Vehicular Ad hoc Networks

Vehicular Ad-hoc Network (VANET) technology is the basis of Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) connectivity that enables the delivery of useful information to and fro between vehicles in vehicle-to-vehicle communication mode; or between vehicle and infrastructure in vehicle-to-infrastructure mode for safety and comfort. However, due to the openness of the wireless medium used by VANET, the technology is vulnerable to security threats in both communication modes. In this study, the essential background of VANET from architectural point of view and communication types are discussed. Then, the overview of modification attack in VANET is presented. In addition, this paper thoroughly reviews the existing prevention schemes for modification attack in VANET. This review paper reveals that there is still a need for a better and more efficient preventive scheme to address the modification attack in VANET.

Review of Prevention Schemes for Modification Attack in Vehicular Ad hoc Networks

Address Resolution (AR) and Duplicate Address Detection (DAD) are considered the most important processes in Neighbour Discovery Protocol (NDP), which occurs frequently from each Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) host communicating with other neighbouring hosts. Two NDP messages are used during AR and DAD to communicate with one another in the same IPv6 link-local network, namely Neighbour Solicitation (NS) and Neighbour Advertisement (NA) messages. However, NDP messages have non-secure designs and lack verification mechanisms for authenticating whether incoming messages originate from a legitimate or illegitimate node. Therefore, any node in the same link can manipulate NS or NA messages and then launch a Denial-of-Service (DoS) attack. Techniques proposed to secure AR and DAD include Secure NDP (SeND) and Trust-NDP (Trust-ND); however, these techniques either entail high processing time and bandwidth consumption or are vulnerable to DoS attacks because of their designs. Therefore, to secure AR and DAD, this study aims to introduce a prevention technique called Match-Prevention, which secures target IP addresses and exchange messages (i.e. NS and NA). The processing time, bandwidth consumption and DoS prevention success rate of Match-Prevention in different scenarios are evaluated, and its performance is compared with those of existing techniques, including Standard-Process (i.e., Standard-AR and Standard-DAD), SeND and Trust-ND. Results show that Match-Prevention requires less processing time during AR and DAD processes and less bandwidth consumption compared with other existing techniques. In terms of DoS prevention success rate, the experiments show that Standard-Process and Trust-ND are unable to secure AR and DAD from DoS attacks, whilst SeND is vulnerable to flooding attacks. By contrast, Match-Prevention allows IPv6 nodes to verify the incoming message, discard the fake message before further processing and prevent a DoS attack during AR and DAD in an IPv6 link-local network.

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Match-Prevention Technique Against Denial-of-Service Attack on Address Resolution and Duplicate Address Detection Processes in IPv6 Link-Local Network

Visual cryptography is an encryption technique that decomposes secret images into multiple shares. These shares are digitally or physically overlapped to recover the original image, negating the need for complex mathematical operations or additional hardware. There have been many variations of visual cryptography proposed over the years, each addressing different problems or to fulfill different security requirements. Existing review papers on the area only cover certain types of visual cryptography or lack comparisons between the various schemes. To address this gap, this paper provides broad overview of the area to aid new researchers in identifying research problems or to select suitable visual cryptography methods for their desired applications. For more veteran researchers in the area, our paper provides the most up-to-date coverage of the state-of-the-art. We first provide an introduction to the various categories of visual cryptography techniques, including a discussion on recently proposed schemes. These schemes are then compared in terms of their features, performance metrics, advantages and disadvantages. Compared to prior work, we extend the number of comparison metrics to include signal-to-noise ratio and the type of shares. Over 40 visual cryptography schemes that have been proposed in the past two decades were analyzed and compared. Our findings indicate that existing problems such as pixel expansion, poor quality of recovered image quality, computational and memory complexities still exist, and a optimizing the trade-off between these requirements still requires further investigation. We conclude the paper with a discussion of these open problems and future research directions.

An overview of visual cryptography techniques

Facial recognition as an authentication factor requires that facial images and features are tamper-free. Visual cryptography (VC) is commonly used for this purpose but leads to additional computati...

Multifactor authentication system based on color visual cryptography, facial recognition, and dragonfly optimization

Visual cryptography is an encryption technique that decomposes a secret image into multiple shares that are digitally ‘overlapped’ based on logical operations to recover the original secret image. ...

An enhanced color visual cryptography scheme based on the binary dragonfly algorithm

Modern identification cards can be used for a myriad of applications such as electronic passports, ATM cards or payment cards for public transportation. Despite their ease of use, user authentication is an important factor that must be taken into consideration. In addition to the use of passwords, biometric data such as fingerprints or iris images can also be included as part of a multi-factor authentication system. However, these methods require secure storage of the biometric template and active participation from the user. In this paper, we propose a new method of authentication for identification cards based on colour visual cryptography and facial recognition. A colour image of the user will be encrypted using visual cryptography and split into two share images, one of which will be stored on the database and the other will be stored in the card. When the card is placed onto a sensor, the two shares will overlap to uncover the original image. The recovered image is then fed into a trained facial recognition algorithm to verify the user's identity. The proposed method is evaluated based on recognition rate and runtime. Experimental results indicate the feasibility of the proposed method for practical application and can be used as a starting point for future work in the area.

Dyala R. Ibrahim

Papers

Match-Prevention Technique Against Denial-of-Service Attack on Address Resolution and Duplicate Address Detection Processes in IPv6 Link-Local Network

An overview of visual cryptography techniques

Multifactor authentication system based on color visual cryptography, facial recognition, and dragonfly optimization

An enhanced color visual cryptography scheme based on the binary dragonfly algorithm

Authentication for ID cards based on colour visual cryptography and facial recognition