Evolution of Protein Molecules

Fungal diseases represent an important paradigm in immunology, as they can result from either a lack of recognition by the immune system or overactivation of the inflammatory response. Research in this field is entering an exciting period of transition from studying the molecular and cellular bases of fungal virulence to determining the cellular and molecular mechanisms that maintain immune homeostasis with fungi. The fine line between these two research areas is central to our understanding of tissue homeostasis and its possible breakdown in fungal infections and diseases. Recent insights into immune responses to fungi suggest that functionally distinct mechanisms have evolved to achieve optimal host-fungus interactions in mammals.

Immunity to Fungal Infections

The incidence of fungal infections has increased significantly, so contributing to morbidity and mortality. This is caused by an increase in antimicrobial resistance and the restricted number of antifungal drugs, which retain many side effects. Candida species are major human fungal pathogens that cause both mucosal and deep tissue infections. Recent evidence suggests that the majority of infections produced by this pathogen are associated with biofilm growth. Biofilms are biological communities with a high degree of organization, in which micro-organisms form structured, coordinated and functional communities. These biological communities are embedded in a self-created extracellular matrix. Biofilm production is also associated with a high level of antimicrobial resistance of the associated organisms. The ability of Candida species to form drug-resistant biofilms is an important factor in their contribution to human disease. The study of plants as an alternative to other forms of drug discovery has attracted great attention because, according to the World Health Organization, these would be the best sources for obtaining a wide variety of drugs and could benefit a large population. Furthermore, silver nanoparticles, antibodies and photodynamic inactivation have also been used with good results. This article presents a brief review of the literature regarding the epidemiology of Candida species, as well as their pathogenicity and ability to form biofilms, the antifungal activity of natural products and other therapeutic options.

Candida species: current epidemiology, pathogenicity, biofilm formation, natural antifungal products and new therapeutic options

Groundbreaking research on the universality and diversity of microorganisms is now challenging the life sciences to upgrade fundamental theories that once seemed untouchable. To fully appreciate the change that the field is now undergoing, one has to place the epochs and foundational principles of Darwin, Mendel, and the modern synthesis in light of the current advances that are enabling a new vision for the central importance of microbiology. Animals and plants are no longer heralded as autonomous entities but rather as biomolecular networks composed of the host plus its associated microbes, i.e., "holobionts." As such, their collective genomes forge a "hologenome," and models of animal and plant biology that do not account for these intergenomic associations are incomplete. Here, we integrate these concepts into historical and contemporary visions of biology and summarize a predictive and refutable framework for their evaluation. Specifically, we present ten principles that clarify and append what these concepts are and are not, explain how they both support and extend existing theory in the life sciences, and discuss their potential ramifications for the multifaceted approaches of zoology and botany. We anticipate that the conceptual and evidence-based foundation provided in this essay will serve as a roadmap for hypothesis-driven, experimentally validated research on holobionts and their hologenomes, thereby catalyzing the continued fusion of biology's subdisciplines. At a time when symbiotic microbes are recognized as fundamental to all aspects of animal and plant biology, the holobiont and hologenome concepts afford a holistic view of biological complexity that is consistent with the generally reductionist approaches of biology.

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Host Biology in Light of the Microbiome: Ten Principles of Holobionts and Hologenomes.

The ultimate source of water for plants is precipitation; rain falling upon soil penetrates it at a rate depending upon the physical properties of that particular soil; snow and hail do the same after melting. If the rate of rainfall or the rate of production of water by melting exceeds the infiltration rate, then surface runoff occurs and the excess water drains into streams and eventually reaches the sea. That water which penetrates the soil replenishes the soil reservoir and when this is filled to capacity (see chapter 3) the surplus drains through into the aquifers. These are strata such as sand or chalk which can hold substantial quantities of recoverable water. Water held in the soil reservoir is drawn into plant roots and up their stems to be evaporated from the leaves back into the atmosphere, where it rejoins water evaporated from the sea, lakes and rivers and from the surface of wet soil. This so-called hydrological cycle (figure 1.2) depends for its continuance upon energy derived from the sun’s radiation and as will be shown in later chapters its rate is governed largely by meteorological factors.

Eduardo Bagagli

Papers

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis: Molecular Detection in Clinical Samples

Accurate Species Identification parapsilosis Complex for Simple and Analysis of Inteins in the Candida