THE DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTS. By Oscar Kempthorne. New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1952. 631 pp. $8.50. This book by a teacher of statistics (as well as a consultant for \"experimenters\") is a comprehensive study of the philosophical background for the statistical design of experiment. It is necessary to have some facility with algebraic notation and manipulation to be able to use the volume intelligently. The problems are presented from the theoretical point of view, without such practical examples as would be helpful for those not acquainted with mathematics. The mathematical justification for the techniques is given. As a somewhat advanced treatment of the design and analysis of experiments, this volume will be interesting and helpful for many who approach statistics theoretically as well as practically. With emphasis on the \"why,\" and with description given broadly, the author relates the subject matter to the general theory of statistics and to the general problem of experimental inference. MARGARET J. ROBERTSON

The Design and Analysis of Experiments

J. A. Gray (1981, 1982) holds that 2 general motivational systems underlie behavior and affect: a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and a behavioral activation system (BAS). Self-report scales to assess dispositional BIS and BAS sensitivities were created. Scale development (Study 1) and convergent and discriminant validity in the form of correlations with alternative measures are reported (Study 2). In Study 3, a situation in which Ss anticipated a punishment was created. Controlling for initial nervousness, Ss high in BIS sensitivity (assessed earlier) were more nervous than those low in BIS sensitivity. In Study 4, a situation in which Ss anticipated a reward was created. Controlling for initial happiness, Ss high in BAS sensitivity (Reward Responsiveness and Drive scales) were happier than those low in BAS sensitivity. In each case the new scales predicted better than an alternative measure. Discussion is focused on conceptual implications.

Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS Scales

The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations

A model of the neuropsychology of anxiety is proposed. The model is based in the first instance upon an analysis of the behavioural effects of the antianxiety drugs (benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and alcohol) in animals. From such psychopharmacologi-cal experiments the concept of a “behavioural inhibition system” (BIS) has been developed. This system responds to novel stimuli or to those associated with punishment or nonreward by inhibiting ongoing behaviour and increasing arousal and attention to the environment. It is activity in the BIS that constitutes anxiety and that is reduced by antianxiety drugs. The effects of the antianxiety drugs in the brain also suggest hypotheses concerning the neural substrate of anxiety. Although the benzodiazepines and barbiturates facilitate the effects of γ-aminobutyrate, this is insufficient to explain their highly specific behavioural effects. Because of similarities between the behavioural effects of certain lesions and those of the antianxiety drugs, it is proposed that these drugs reduce anxiety by impairing the functioning of a widespread neural system including the septo-hippocampal system (SHS), the Papez circuit, the prefrontal cortex, and ascending monoaminergic and cholinergic pathways which innervate these forebrain structures. Analysis of the functions of this system (based on anatomical, physiological, and behavioural data) suggests that it acts as a comparator: it compares predicted to actual sensory events and activates the outputs of the BIS when there is a mismatch or when the predicted event is aversive. Suggestions are made as to the functions of particular pathways within this overall brain system. The resulting theory is applied to the symptoms and treatment of anxiety in man, its relations to depression, and the personality of individuals who are susceptible to anxiety or depression.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0140525X00013066

Précis of The Neuropsychology of Anxiety: An Enquiry into the Functions of the Septo-Hippocampal System..

People are capable of thinking about the future, the past, remote locations, another person's perspective, and counterfactual alternatives. Without denying the uniqueness of each process, it is proposed that they constitute different forms of traversing psychological distance. Psychological distance is egocentric: Its reference point is the self in the here and now, and the different ways in which an object might be removed from that point-in time, in space, in social distance, and in hypotheticality-constitute different distance dimensions. Transcending the self in the here and now entails mental construal, and the farther removed an object is from direct experience, the higher (more abstract) the level of construal of that object. Supporting this analysis, research shows (a) that the various distances are cognitively related to each other, (b) that they similarly influence and are influenced by level of mental construal, and (c) that they similarly affect prediction, preference, and action.

/pdf/construal-level-theory-of-psychological-distance-g5kjiydrew.pdf

Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance

Prevention of ECS-induced amnesia by reestablishing continuity with the training situation

Background Serotonin implication in allergic contact dermatitis was earlier suggested.



Objective  To study the expression of serotonin (5-HT) and its receptors 1A and 2A during the kinetics of allergic contact dermatitis (ACD).



Method  Biopsies from 10 female nickel-allergic patients were obtained at 0, 6, 24, 48 and 72 h after nickel application using a patch testing procedure and then analysed by immunohistochemistry.



Results  Higher 5-HT epidermal immunoreactivity was seen at 0 and 6 h compared with 24, 48 and 72 h. The number of 5-HT labelled platelets was higher at 48 and 72 h compared with 0, 6 and 24 h. There was a decrease in the number of 5-HT1AR positive cells at 24, 48 and 72 h compared with 0 h. Furthermore, epidermal 5-HT1AR immunoreactivity was stronger at 48 and 72 h compared with 0 h. Total (dermis plus epidermis) number of 5-HT2AR positive cells was gradually increased in a time-dependent manner at 6, 24, 48 and 72 h compared with 0 h.



Conclusions  Our results suggest the implication of 5-HT, 5-HT1AR and 5-HT2AR in the development of human ACD and the possibility to target those receptors at an early stage of this inflammatory condition.

Time-dependent modulation of serotonin and its receptors 1A and 2A expression in allergic contact dermatitis

The (re)uptake of 3H-5-HT was similar in hippocampal slices and synaptosomes from mice (C57BL/6), rats (Sprague DAwley), and macaque monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). In all species, the specific uptake was both saturable and showed high affinity for 5HT. However, the reuptake capacity was higher in rodents than in monkey. In a parallel series, radioautography was performed on hippocampal slices from the 3 species. The distribution of the reuptake sites extended into all hippocampal subfields, and a preferential relationship with pyramidal and granule cells was apparent. The innervation density followed mouse greater than rat greater than monkey. The innervation of the monkey Ammon's horn was the lowest of all fields examined. This anatomical observation of a decreased density in primate Ammon's horn was biochemically tested. Dissection of hippocampus into Ammon's horn and dentate gyrus showed much lower 3H-5-HT reuptake in the former. These results suggest a progressive decline in the serotonin innervation of the vertebrate hippocampus, with Ammon's horn more vulnerable than the dentate gyrus.

The visualization and characterization of 5HT reuptake sites in the rodent and primate hippocampus. A preliminary study.

The neurotoxic amphetamine derivatives pchloroamphetamine (PCA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), knfluramine (FEN), and methamphetamine (METH) cause serotonin (5-HT) release in in pino preparations such as synaptosomes or brain slices that had been preloaded with [JH]5-HT (b r example, see Re&. 1-4). This release is blocked by 5-HT uptake inhibitors,5.6 suggesting that it is mediated by the 5-HT transporter protein. Furthermore, MDMA, FEN, and METH have moderate atfinhies b r the 5-HT transporter,’ indicating that the transporter may be the site at which these drugs act when causing release. If the notion that all of these amphetamines cause 5-HT release by activating the transporter is correct then they should compete against each other when combined and their 5-HT-releasing effects should not be additive. Thus, in this study, we determined whether a combination of two drugs releases more 5-HT than either drug alone at an equivalent concentration. Crude whole brain (except cerebellum) synaptosomes were prepared from male Sprague-Dawley rats by homogenization in 10 vol/wt 0.32 M sucrose. The P2 pellet was resuspended in 10 volhrain weight of Krebs-Ringer buffer containing 0.1 mM pargyline. The synaptosomes were preloaded with [3H]5-HT (100 nM) for 25 min at 37OC. The release assay was pehrmed in 96-well, poly-D-lysine-coated culture plates in a final volume of 200 p1. Release was started by adding 50-pl aliquots of the washed, preloaded synaptosomes to 150 pl of Krebs buffer containing the drugs. After 20 min at 37OC, the release was terminated by spinning the plates b r 10 min at 2500 x 8. Supernatants were removed and the radioactivity in the sedimented synaptosomes was extracted with alcohol and counted in a liquid scintillation counter. Results are expressed as percent of control of the radioactivity remaining in the synaptosomes. Each experiment was repeated at least twice. TABLE 1shows ECthat were obtained fkom dose-response curves in the range of

Evidence for a common mechanism of serotonin release induced by substituted amphetamines in vitro.

The serotonergic cells have been important material for histochemical and cytochemical studies since the advent of the Falck-Hillarp formaldehyde condensation technique (Falck, 1962; Falck et al., 1962). However, long before these morphologic studies, the existence and actions of serotonin had been investigated. Rapport (1948) first isolated this indoleamine from serum and appropriately named it serotonin in 1948. Within six years, Woolley and Shaw (1954) proposed that this compound was involved in certain mental disorders. Marrazzi and Hart (1955) compared the effects oflysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) on the electrocortical potential of the optic cortex shortly afterwards. Thus, even before the serotonergic system had been localized, biochemical, physiological, and clinical studies were being performed. This collection ofarticles offers new methods for serotonin research. The majority of these techniques were included in a booklet distributed at the 1 lth Annual Neuroscience Meeting held in Los Angeles on October 21, 1981. The methods have been developed by researchers, representing anatomical, biochemical, physiological, and clinical disciplines, whose efforts represent the breakdown of traditional disciplinary barriers. It is apparent that many of the approaches are truly interdisciplinary. The opportunity to present this unique collection of methods is provided by theJournal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry. The methods presented are currently being used to study serotonin-the molecule (levels, synthesis, storage, release, uptake, and transport)-and the serotonin-producing neuronthe cell (morphology, topography, projections, development, growth, and electrophysiology). Many experimental approaches are covered in this issue, each examining a different aspect of a single chemical system. first approximation to a cause that seems to him intelligible, and says: “This is the cause!” Leo Tolstoy War and Peace

Efrain C. Azmitia

Papers

Prevention of ECS-induced amnesia by reestablishing continuity with the training situation

Time-dependent modulation of serotonin and its receptors 1A and 2A expression in allergic contact dermatitis

The visualization and characterization of 5HT reuptake sites in the rodent and primate hippocampus. A preliminary study.

Evidence for a common mechanism of serotonin release induced by substituted amphetamines in vitro.

Recent advances in serotonin methods.