It has been predicted, by theory and models, that heavy precipitation will increase with climate change and this is now being seen in observations. Emergence of signals such as this will enable testing of predictions, which should increase confidence in them. Environmental phenomena are often observed first, and then explained quantitatively. The complexity of processes, the range of scales involved, and the lack of first principles make it challenging to predict conditions beyond the ones observed. Here we use the intensification of heavy precipitation as a counterexample, where seemingly complex and potentially computationally intractable processes manifest themselves to first order in simple ways: heavy precipitation intensification is now emerging in the observed record across many regions of the world, confirming both theory and model predictions made decades ago. As the anthropogenic climate signal strengthens, there will be more opportunities to test climate predictions for other variables against observations and across a hierarchy of different models and theoretical concepts.

Observed heavy precipitation increase confirms theory and early model

Landscapes change because they are the expression of the dynamic interaction between natural and cultural forces in the environment. Cultural landscapes are the result of consecutive reorganization of the land in order to adapt its use and spatial structure better to the changing societal demands. Particularly in Europe, history has recorded many successive and even devastating landscape changes, which have left barely any relics today. Today, the changes are seen as a menace, as a negative evolution because they cause a loss of diversity, coherence and identity, which were characteristic for the traditional cultural landscapes that are rapidly vanishing. This growing concern is also expressed in the European Landscape Convention, which will be used as a start for the analysis in this article. Three periods of landscape dynamics are considered: the traditional landscapes before the important changes that started in the 18th century, the landscapes of the revolutions age of the 19th to 20th century, and the post-modern new landscapes. The combined effect of the driving forces such as accessibility, urbanization, globalization and the impact of calamities have been different in each of the periods and affected the nature and pace of the changes as well as the perception people have had about the landscape. Values change accordingly and so does the way of using and shaping the landscape. It is argued that this changing perception also influences what kind and aspects of landscapes are studied, protected and managed. Diversity and identity of cultural landscapes are central in the discussion. It is shown that coherence between small composing elements in a broader spatial context is important for the legibility of the landscape and that the ability to tell the (his)story of a place strongly enhances the identity and the overall value. This offers criteria for inventorying and assessing landscapes, which is needed to define future management and development. Although the general trends of future development of the European landscapes are rather well known, planning and managing future landscape remains difficult and extremely uncertain. The processes and management in past traditional landscapes and the manifold relations people have towards the perceivable environment and the symbolic meaning it generates, offer valuable knowledge for more sustainable planning and management for future landscapes.

Why Landscapes of the Past are Important for the Future

With increasing evidence that exposures to air pollution near large roadways increases risks of a number of adverse human health effects, identifying methods to reduce these exposures has become a public health priority. Roadside vegetation barriers have shown the potential to reduce near-road air pollution concentrations; however, the characteristics of these barriers needed to ensure pollution reductions are not well understood. Designing vegetation barriers to mitigate near-road air pollution requires a mechanistic understanding of how barrier configurations affect the transport of traffic-related air pollutants. We first evaluated the performance of the Comprehensive Turbulent Aerosol Dynamics and Gas Chemistry (CTAG) model with Large Eddy Simulation (LES) to capture the effects of vegetation barriers on near-road air quality, compared against field data. Next, CTAG with LES was employed to explore the effects of six conceptual roadside vegetation/solid barrier configurations on near-road size-resolved particle concentrations, governed by dispersion and deposition. Two potentially viable design options are revealed: a) a wide vegetation barrier with high Leaf Area Density (LAD), and b) vegetation-solid barrier combinations, i.e., planting trees next to a solid barrier. Both designs reduce downwind particle concentrations significantly. The findings presented in the study will assist urban planning and forestry organizations with evaluating different green infrastructure design options.

Supporting Information for "Roadside Vegetation Barrier Designs to Mitigate Near-Road Air Pollution Impacts"

Abstract This study has demonstrated a serious problem of Pb contamination in the normal environment of many urban residents. Many soil samples have been analyzed by X‐ray fluorescence spectroscopy from backyard and play areas as well as from large community gardens and playgrounds. An average Pb level of 800 ppm was found in about 900 soil samples. The elevated Pb levels are definitely traceable to widespread use of Pb paint in the past. Tissues of selected plant species grown in garden soils containing Pb levels ranging from 100–2000 ppm showed differing affinities for Pb uptake. The amount of Pb found in tissues was generally related to the soil Pb concentration but was also organ or tissue related; fruits taking up less than roots and roots less than tops. Experimental design insured that the soil was probably the sole source of Pb in this study. This points to positive translocation of Pb from soil into plant tissue.

A study of soil contamination and plant lead uptake in Boston urban gardens [Toxicity]

The trend of ecological thought in Europe has always differed somewhat from that which is at the time in vogue in America. It is peculiarly important, therefore, that American ecologists keep as close an understanding as possible of what is going on across the water. For this purpose the little volume by BRAUN-BLANQUET' is most admirable. His citation of literature is extensive, and extends right up to the date of publication. The very active Scandinavian and Russian ecologists are freely quoted, and much American research is reviewed. The book is a detailed summary of research methods, in fact, together with a critical evaluation of each proposal, and much sound philosophizing. The introductory page points out the difference between studies of the individual organism and studies of communities. Choosing for this volume the second viewpoint, plant sociology is defined as the study of all the phenomena that have to do with the life of plants in social units. Section I discusses commensalism very briefly, and competition at length. Section II, the remainder of the book, presents in order the five principal problems of plant sociology: (i) organization or structure of communities; (2) synecologv, the relation of communities to one another and to the rest of the environment; (3) syngenetics, the origin and decline of plant communities; (4) synchorology, the occurrence and distribution of communities; (5) classification of communities (systematics). The first topic (organization) stands today at the focus of phytosociologic activities. The structure of the community "is the indispensable foundation for an unbiased treatment" of all the related problems. And it is this section that is most needed in American thought and practice. A difficulty arises in finding English equivalents for the terms Assoziation, Einzelbestand, Subassoziation, Fazies, Assoziationsfragment, Siedlung, Vegetationsfleck, Verein, Synusie, and Formation. It is indeed apparent that formation, association, society, as proposed by CLEMENTS and by LIVINGSTON and SHREVE, do not exactly correspond with the categories used by European botanists. It is to be hoped that a clear definition of terms may be decided upon at the forthcoming Cambridge conference. The characteristics of a community are considered under the following heads:

Plant SociologyPflanzensoziologie.J. Braun-Blanquet

The interaction between natural, archaeological and agricultural elements is evident in many historical sites, such as the Medieval Benedictine Monastery of San Vincenzo al Volturno, located in an area of great agricultural and environmental value. Biodiversity issues are rarely considered in archaeological conservation and vice versa. This paper describes an assessment methodology for the evaluation of the natural and historical value of a site, necessary for a proper evaluation and as a preparatory step to aid decision-making and planning. In the analysed area, our findings showed an interesting floristic and vegetational heterogeneity, which were extremely valuable from a conservation point of view. Few alien species were found. Comparison with protected or endangered species and habitat lists led to the identification of a series of areas in need of more active protection, including arid grasslands presenting high biodiversity and attributable to the 6210* European Habitat. A cultural landscape evaluation was based on archaeobotanical and historical data, and it shows an interesting mosaic system. An assessment of the interaction between natural vegetation and monuments showed minimal impact from wall vegetation but a high potential risk due to wood colonisation in an area with unexcavated buildings. The usefulness of such an approach in the management of an archaeological site is that it offers an opportunity for optimisation: a proper evaluation can reduce the risk of damage and the presence of the archaeological park allows for protection and highlights natural valuable elements.

An assessment methodology to combine the preservation of biodiversity and cultural heritage: the San Vincenzo al Volturno historical site (Molise, Italy)

Archaeological sites can represent a refuge for plant and animal species, protecting them from the pressures of urbanisation. However, sometimes these environmental resources can lead to negative consequences for the monuments. In order to investigate such contrasting effects, we selected the UNESCO World Heritage Site Etruscan necropolis known as “La Banditaccia” (Cerveteri, Italy). We performed floristic and phytosociological analyses, and observations on roots interactions with monuments on several tombs (9 tumuli and 5 cube-shaped tombs) and applied commonly used indices to evaluate damages to the structures. The study revealed rich biodiversity of the site and the presence of rare plants, but also of some invasive species. The analysis of the phytosociological sets showed differences among vegetation types found on the tumuli as a function of the varying degrees of anthropization. Abundant plant colonisation was detected on the top of the tumuli, sometimes causing damages to the structures. The results of the Impact Index analysis showed that the dynamic evolution of vegetation constitutes a significant risk to the archaeological structures. We suggest that careful management of vegetation should achieve equilibrium between the management requirements for the monuments and conservation of naturalistic values. A deeper evaluation of the interactions between plants and monuments is however necessary.

Safeguarding natural and cultural heritage on Etruscan tombs (La Banditaccia, Cerveteri, Italy)

Guidelines for urban community gardening: Proposal of preliminary indicators for several ecosystem services (Rome, Italy)

Vegetation management of archaeological sites is a recurrent problem when considering the conservation of historic structures and biodiversity. In the UNESCO site of the Etruscan necropolis...

Emanuela Cicinelli

Papers

An assessment methodology to combine the preservation of biodiversity and cultural heritage: the San Vincenzo al Volturno historical site (Molise, Italy)

Safeguarding natural and cultural heritage on Etruscan tombs (La Banditaccia, Cerveteri, Italy)

Guidelines for urban community gardening: Proposal of preliminary indicators for several ecosystem services (Rome, Italy)

Trends of plant communities growing on the Etruscan tombs (Cerveteri, Italy) related to different management practices

Colonization and damages of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle on archaeological structures: Evidence from the Aurelian Walls in Rome (Italy)