Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

The Theory of Island Biogeography

This paper describes the technical development and accuracy assessment of the most recent and improved version of the SoilGrids system at 250m resolution (June 2016 update). SoilGrids provides global predictions for standard numeric soil properties (organic carbon, bulk density, Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC), pH, soil texture fractions and coarse fragments) at seven standard depths (0, 5, 15, 30, 60, 100 and 200 cm), in addition to predictions of depth to bedrock and distribution of soil classes based on the World Reference Base (WRB) and USDA classification systems (ca. 280 raster layers in total). Predictions were based on ca. 150,000 soil profiles used for training and a stack of 158 remote sensing-based soil covariates (primarily derived from MODIS land products, SRTM DEM derivatives, climatic images and global landform and lithology maps), which were used to fit an ensemble of machine learning methods-random forest and gradient boosting and/or multinomial logistic regression-as implemented in the R packages ranger, xgboost, nnet and caret. The results of 10-fold cross-validation show that the ensemble models explain between 56% (coarse fragments) and 83% (pH) of variation with an overall average of 61%. Improvements in the relative accuracy considering the amount of variation explained, in comparison to the previous version of SoilGrids at 1 km spatial resolution, range from 60 to 230%. Improvements can be attributed to: (1) the use of machine learning instead of linear regression, (2) to considerable investments in preparing finer resolution covariate layers and (3) to insertion of additional soil profiles. Further development of SoilGrids could include refinement of methods to incorporate input uncertainties and derivation of posterior probability distributions (per pixel), and further automation of spatial modeling so that soil maps can be generated for potentially hundreds of soil variables. Another area of future research is the development of methods for multiscale merging of SoilGrids predictions with local and/or national gridded soil products (e.g. up to 50 m spatial resolution) so that increasingly more accurate, complete and consistent global soil information can be produced. SoilGrids are available under the Open Data Base License.

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SoilGrids250m: Global gridded soil information based on machine learning

▪ Abstract Estimates of global wetland area range from 5.3 to 12.8 million km2. About half the global wetland area has been lost, but an international treaty (the 1971 Ramsar Convention) has helped 144 nations protect the most significant remaining wetlands. Because most nations lack wetland inventories, changes in the quantity and quality of the world's wetlands cannot be tracked adequately. Despite the likelihood that remaining wetlands occupy less than 9% of the earth's land area, they contribute more to annually renewable ecosystem services than their small area implies. Biodiversity support, water quality improvement, flood abatement, and carbon sequestration are key functions that are impaired when wetlands are lost or degraded. Restoration techniques are improving, although the recovery of lost biodiversity is challenged by invasive species, which thrive under disturbance and displace natives. Not all damages to wetlands are reversible, but it is not always clear how much can be retained through re...

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Wetland resources : Status, trends, ecosystem services, and restorability

. The carbon burial in vegetated sediments, ignored in past assessments of carbon burial in the ocean, was evaluated using a bottom-up approach derived from upscaling a compilation of published individual estimates of carbon burial in vegetated habitats (seagrass meadows, salt marshes and mangrove forests) to the global level and a top-down approach derived from considerations of global sediment balance and a compilation of the organic carbon content of vegeatated sediments. Up-scaling of individual burial estimates values yielded a total carbon burial in vegetated habitats of 111 Tmol C y-1. The total burial in unvegetated sediments was estimated to be 126 Tg C y-1, resulting in a bottom-up estimate of total burial in the ocean of about 244 Tg C y-1, two-fold higher than estimates of oceanic carbon burial that presently enter global carbon budgets. The organic carbon concentrations in vegetated marine sediments exceeds by 2 to 10-fold those in shelf/deltaic sediments. Top-down recalculation of ocean sediment budgets to account for these, previously neglected, organic-rich sediments, yields a top-down carbon burial estimate of 216 Tg C y-1, with vegetated coastal habitats contributing about 50%. Even though vegetated carbon burial contributes about half of the total carbon burial in the ocean, burial represents a small fraction of the net production of these ecosystems, estimated at about 3388 Tg C y-1, suggesting that bulk of the benthic net ecosystem production must support excess respiration in other compartments, such as unvegetated sediments and the coastal pelagic compartment. The total excess organic carbon available to be exported to the ocean is estimated at between 1126 to 3534 Tg C y-1, the bulk of which must be respired in the open ocean. Widespread loss of vegetated coastal habitats must have reduced carbon burial in the ocean by about 30 Tg C y-1, identifying the destruction of these ecosystems as an important loss of CO2 sink capacity in the biosphere.

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Major role of marine vegetation on the oceanic carbon cycle

. In this forum paper we discuss how soil scientists can help to reach the recently adopted UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in the most effective manner. Soil science, as a land-related discipline, has important links to several of the SDGs, which are demonstrated through the functions of soils and the ecosystem services that are linked to those functions (see graphical abstract in the Supplement). We explore and discuss how soil scientists can rise to the challenge both internally, in terms of our procedures and practices, and externally, in terms of our relations with colleague scientists in other disciplines, diverse groups of stakeholders and the policy arena. To meet these goals we recommend the following steps to be taken by the soil science community as a whole: (i) embrace the UN SDGs, as they provide a platform that allows soil science to demonstrate its relevance for realizing a sustainable society by 2030; (ii) show the specific value of soil science: research should explicitly show how using modern soil information can improve the results of inter- and transdisciplinary studies on SDGs related to food security, water scarcity, climate change, biodiversity loss and health threats; (iii) take leadership in overarching system analysis of ecosystems, as soils and soil scientists have an integrated nature and this places soil scientists in a unique position; (iii) raise awareness of soil organic matter as a key attribute of soils to illustrate its importance for soil functions and ecosystem services; (iv) improve the transfer of knowledge through knowledge brokers with a soil background; (v) start at the basis: educational programmes are needed at all levels, starting in primary schools, and emphasizing practical, down-to-earth examples; (vi) facilitate communication with the policy arena by framing research in terms that resonate with politicians in terms of the policy cycle or by considering drivers, pressures and responses affecting impacts of land use change; and finally (vii) all this is only possible if researchers, with soil scientists in the front lines, look over the hedge towards other disciplines, to the world at large and to the policy arena, reaching over to listen first, as a basis for genuine collaboration.

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The significance of soils and soil science towards realization of the United Nations sustainable development goals

In September of 2012 the United States found itself facing a fungal meningitis outbreak that was traced back to contaminated steroid injections. The fungus Exserohilium rostratum, which is found in soil, among other locations in the environment, was identifi ed as the main cause of the health issues created by the contaminated steroids. As of 17 Dec. 2012 there were 594 cases of fungal meningitis, stroke due to presumed fungal meningitis, or other central nervous system-related infections, 26 cases of peripheral joint infections, and 39 deaths linked to the contaminated steroids documented. However, the life cycle and soil ecology of E. rostratum is not well understood, and such knowledge would aid human health professionals in understanding the pathogenic potential of E. rostratum. Therefore, soil scientists have a role to play in developing the most effective ways to combat human health challenges such as the 2012 fungal meningitis outbreak. Opinion and Policy

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The 2012 Fungal Meningitis Outbreak in the United States: Connections Between Soils and Human Health

Active participation in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) courses maximizes learning while novel technologies allow instructors the opportunity to create interactive activities in the classroom. With this in mind, we incorporated the use of an augmented reality (AR) sandbox at the University of Wyoming to facilitate an experiential learning experience in soil science. The AR sandbox was developed by researchers at the University of California-Davis as part of a project on informal science education in freshwater lakes and watershed science. It is a hands-on display that allows users to create topography models by shaping sand that is augmented in real-time by colored elevation maps, topographic contour lines, and simulated water. It uses a 3-dimensional motion sensing camera that detects changes to the distance between the sand surface and the camera sensor. A short-throw projector then displays the elevation model and contour lines in real-time. Undergraduate students enrolled in the Introductory Soil Science course were tasked with creating a virtual landscape and then predicting where particular soils would form on the various landforms. All participants reported a greater comprehension of surface water flow, erosion, and soil formation as a result of this exercise. They also provided suggestions for future activities using the AR sandbox including its incorporation into lessons of watershed hydrology, land management, soil physics, and soil genesis. K.L. Vaughan, Ecosystem Science and Management Dep., Univ. of Wyoming, 1000 E. University Ave., Laramie, WY 82071; R.E. Vaughan, RedCastle Resources Inc., Salt Lake City, UT 84119; J.M. Seeley, Ellbogen Center for Teaching and Learning, Univ. of Wyoming, 1000 E. University Ave., Laramie, WY 82071. *Corresponding author (karen.vaughan@uwyo.edu). Abbreviations: 3D, 3-dimensional; AR, augmented reality; KeckCAVES, W.M. Keck Center for Active Visualization in the Earth Sciences; STEM, science, technology, engineering, and math; Q, question. Published in Nat. Sci. Educ. 46:160031 (2017) doi:10.4195/nse2016.11.0031 Received 18 Nov. 2016 Accepted 1 June 2017 Supplemental material available online Available freely online through the author-supported open access option Copyright © 2017 American Society of Agronomy 5585 Guilford Road, Madison, WI 53711 USA This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Core ideas • Greater learning occurs when students are active participants. • An augmented reality sandbox belongs in the soil science classroom. • Experiential learning increases student engagement. Studies show that greater learning takes place in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) when students are active participants in their learning (Freeman et al., 2014). Researchers uncovered that a primary reason students leave STEM fi elds within the fi rst couple of years of higher education is poor teaching (Seymour and Hewitt, 1997). Traditional lectures and readings are not engaging student interest. Studies show, however, that active participation in STEM courses maximizes learning (Freeman et al., 2014). One way in which this learning is enhanced is by engaging in a cycle of practice and feedback (Ambrose et al., 2010). Participating in an activity and observing the outcomes, provides feedback that guides further practice and understanding. Active learning through the use of multisensory techniques can also help with retention of learning. For example, when a student interacts with information both visually and kinesthetically, information in encoded differently in the brain than through passive listening (Persellin and Daniels, 2014). The acquisition of information through a variety of senses allows the brain to encode information and store memories more deeply (Persellin and Daniels, 2014). In natural resource and environmental sciences education, this often involves field visits to examine phenomena in the natural setting and explore parameters that influence these features (i.e., climate, geomorphology, geologic material, organisms). Field visits, although ideal, are not always feasible for many reasons including cost, time constraints, inclement weather, and scheduling difficulties, among others. Therefore, alternative interactive activities can help increase student engagement and retention in the classroom and laboratory. Bearing this in mind, we incorporated the use of an augmented reality (AR) sandbox in the Introductory Soil Science course (SOIL 2010) at the University of Wyoming to facilitate an experiential learning experience in soil science. As a relatively new technology, the effectiveness of using AR in a soil science classroom has not yet been examined (Reed et al., 2014). Published June 30, 2017

Experiential learning in soil science: Use of an augmented reality sandbox

Funding for this work came from the Spanish Ministry of 
Economy and Competitiveness and FEDER (Grants AGL2012-
40128-C03-03 and AGL2015-65036-C3-3-R, MINECO/FEDER, 
UE)), and from the Junta de Andalucia (P11-AGR-7431). Also 
support through Ph.D. grant No. 8 (Res. 15/04/2010) by IFAPA 
is acknowledged).

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Temporal stability of electrical conductivity in a sandy soil

Complex concepts and ideas are often presented to introductory level students in a simplified form for educational purposes. This simplification sometimes requires that the “whole truth” not be presented. However, the simplified material should be current and factual to the extent that future lessons that build on the introductory material will expand on the originally presented material rather than contradicting it. The presentation of soil classification in many current introductory physical geology textbooks is over 35 years out of date. In addition, the way soil classification terminology is used would be questionable even if it were still current. Individuals teaching introductory geology courses that include sections on soils and the authors of textbooks using incorrect classification terminology should obtain current references on soil classification and correct these deficiencies.

Problems and Suggestions Related to Soil Classification as Presented in Introduction to Physical Geology Textbooks

There has been considerable interest in geodiversity and pedodiversity studies over the last approximately 30 years. Pedodiversity is considered part of geodiversity, but in practice they involved different experts and traditions. There are many common aspects that could be shared by all natural diversity studies, however, these common aspects have not been adequately studied and debated. Quantitative techniques that were developed and refined by biodiversity researchers over multiple decades of biodiversity studies should also be applicable to geodiversity and pedodiversity studies. Soil scientists studying pedodiversity followed the same techniques as mathematical ecologists, but geologists studying geodiversity focused on the implementation of proposals aimed at preserving geological heritage and popularising it among the general public. Therefore, pedodiversity and geodiversity diverged and it is not currently possible to compare the results of geodiversity and pedodiversity research. To reach a point where these research results could be compared, it will be necessary to (i) follow uniform mathematical procedures in both these fields and their subfields and (ii) develop universal taxonomies that will be followed for each of the natural resources (fossils, landforms, minerals, soils, etc.) being investigated. Geodiversity studies should move beyond the objective of proposing projects to preserve natural areas of geological value for economic and social purposes (geoparks, geotourism) and extend to attempts to quantify and compare biotic and abiotic diversity and its consequences. If we want to move forward, with a view to achieving a more mature discipline and a true new paradigm, both communities of experts must act synergistically.

http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/224517/4/Iba%c3%b1ez_JJ_A_Divergence_in_natural_diversity_studies.pdf

Eric C. Brevik

Papers

The 2012 Fungal Meningitis Outbreak in the United States: Connections Between Soils and Human Health

Experiential learning in soil science: Use of an augmented reality sandbox

Temporal stability of electrical conductivity in a sandy soil

Problems and Suggestions Related to Soil Classification as Presented in Introduction to Physical Geology Textbooks

Divergence in natural diversity studies: The need to standardize methods and goals