The Ecological Society of America has evaluated the ecological effects of current and potential uses of field-released genetically engineered organisms (GEOs), as described in this Position Paper. Some GEOs could play a positive role in sustainable agriculture, forestry, aquaculture, bioremediation, and environmental management, both in developed and developing countries. However, deliberate or inadvertent releases of GEOs into the environment could have negative ecological effects under certain circumstances.

Possible risks of GEOs could include: (1) creating new or more vigorous pests and pathogens; (2) exacerbating the effects of existing pests through hybridization with related transgenic organisms; (3) harm to nontarget species, such as soil organisms, non-pest insects, birds, and other animals; (4) disruption of biotic communities, including agroecosystems; and (5) irreparable loss or changes in species diversity or genetic diversity within species. Many potential applications of genetic engineering extend beyond traditional breeding, encompassing viruses, bacteria, algae, fungi, grasses, trees, insects, fish, and shellfish. GEOs that present novel traits will need special scrutiny with regard to their environmental effects.

The Ecological Society of America supports the following recommendations. (1) GEOs should be designed to reduce environmental risks. (2) More extensive studies of the environmental benefits and risks associated with GEOs are needed. (3) These effects should be evaluated relative to appropriate baseline scenarios. (4) Environmental release of GEOs should be prevented if scientific knowledge about possible risks is clearly inadequate. (5) In some cases, post-release monitoring will be needed to identify, manage, and mitigate environmental risks. (6) Science-based regulation should subject all transgenic organisms to a similar risk assessment framework and should incorporate a cautious approach, recognizing that many environmental effects are GEO- and site-specific. (7) Ecologists, agricultural scientists, molecular biologists, and others need broader training and wider collaboration to address these recommendations.

In summary, GEOs should be evaluated and used within the context of a scientifically based regulatory policy that encourages innovation without compromising sound environmental management. The Ecological Society of America is committed to providing scientific expertise for evaluating and predicting the ecological effects of field-released transgenic organisms.

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Genetically engineered organisms and the environment: current status and recommendations1

Copyright © 2017 The Korean Society of Phycology 1 http://e-algae.org pISSN: 1226-2617 eISSN: 2093-0860 Seaweed aquaculture: cultivation technologies, challenges and its ecosystem services Jang K. Kim, Charles Yarish*, Eun Kyoung Hwang, Miseon Park and Youngdae Kim Department of Marine Science, School of Natural Sciences, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Korea Department of Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut, 1 University Place, Stamford, CT 06901, USA Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 1 University Place, Stamford, CT 06901, USA Seaweed Research Center, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Mokpo 58746, Korea Southeast Sea Fisheries Research Institute, National Institute of Fisheries Science, Tongyeong 46083, Korea

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Seaweed aquaculture: cultivation technologies, challenges and its ecosystem services

A word-wide overview is presented of the current state of mass cultivation of seaweeds. In comparison with a total annual commercial production of fish, crustaceans and molluscs of about 120 × 106t, of which one-third is produced by aquaculture, the production of seaweeds is about 10 × 106t wet weight; the majoirty of this comes from culture-based systems. The Top Ten Species List is headed by the kelp Laminaria japonica with 4.2 × 106t fresh weight cultivated mainly in China. The productivity of a well-developed, multi-layered, perennial seaweed vegetation is as high as dense terrestrial vegetation, and even higher annual values for productivity have been reported for tank cultures of macroalgae. Epiphytes provide a major problem for the seaweed cultivator, but can be controlled by growing plants at high densities in rope cultures in the sea, or, more easily, in seaweed tank cultures on land. The main environmental problem of animal (fed) aquaculture is the discharge of nutrient loads into coastal waters, e.g., 35 kg N and 7 kg P t−1 aquacultured fish. Integration of fish and seaweed farming may help to solve this problem, since seaweeds can remove up to 90% of the nutrient discharge from an intensive fish farm. Mass culture of commercially valuable seaweed species is likely to play an increasingly important role as a nutrient-removal system to alleviate eutrophication problems due to fed aquaculture.

Mass cultivation of seaweeds: current aspects and approaches

Many authorities have reached the conclusion that using fossil fuels, as the main source of energy to satisfy the increasing global energy demand, is ultimately unsustainable. This is because of depleting resources, and also because, if this approach is followed, emissions of carbon dioxide would continue to build up. Consequently, research on biofuel, that is fuel made from biomass, derived from materials that were recently living, has attracted attention. In this context, the generation of biofuels from algae shows promise for the following reasons. The algae can be grown quickly, all the materials produced are non-toxic and biodegradable, and during this growth there is an opportunity to cause greenhouse gas fixation. Also, since growing algae does not need arable land, it can be grown without competing with food or feed crops, the fuel derived from it being a “third generation” biofuel.

This paper describes different types of algae (microalgae and seaweeds), and presents different technologies employed in making biofuels (biogas and biodiesel) from them.

Technologies and developments of third generation biofuel production

The use of cultivated seaweeds as a feedstock for multiple industrial applications has gained increasing interest in the Western World over the past decades. Norway has an extensive coastline and a well-established aquaculture sector offering suitable preconditions for developing large-scale cultivation of seaweed biomass both in monoculture and in Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) systems. Recent efforts from research, industry and public authorities have been committed to develop a Norwegian bio-economy based on cultivated seaweed, focusing on cultivation and processing of the biomass. This review reports on the status of seaweed aquaculture in Norway, supported by production data collected since the delivery of the first commercial cultivation permits at sea in 2014. Although novel product developments are currently limited, future industrial perspectives based on cultivated biomass are being discussed. Upscaling from experimental cultivation schemes to commercial production requires a thorough assessment of the risks and benefits associated with seaweed aquaculture, as well as the development of a regulative framework adapted to this industry. Issues associated with upscaling the macroalgal production that needs to be addressed includes (i) genetic interactions between cultivated and wild crops, (ii) impacts of seaweed cultivation on surrounding ecosystems, (iii) epiphytes and diseases, (iv) area utilization and (v) threats from climate change. Addressing these issues and adapting production practices will ensure the environmental and economic sustainability of an emerging industry based on cultivated seaweed biomass in Norway.

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Seaweed aquaculture in Norway: recent industrial developments and future perspectives

Advances in cultivation technology of commercial eucheumatoid species: a review with suggestions for future research.

The impetus to enhance the quality and quantity of industrial-scale supplies of raw material and extract production drives the needs for research and monitoring of the reproductive biology and physiology of commercial species/strains/variants of Kappaphycus and Eucheuma. Publications and advancements in these fields are reviewed in this chapter. These seaweeds have now become true marine, agronomic crops which have been farmed for several decades principally through cuttings or vegetative reproduction. The scale and importance of this industry requires that further studies are needed imminently in relation to the changing environments within which varied methods of cultivation are practiced. Research on the potential acclimation of various seedstocks when exposed to a varied range of culture practices and changing ecological conditions, including Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA), are required to be implemented more vigorously in order to assess sustainability. Descriptive and predictive modeling using available data from biological and physio-ecological experiments together with additional studies required are highlighted here, to serve as inputs to the collective goal of successful and sustained cultivation of these carrageenophytes.

Reproductive Biology and Eco-physiology of Farmed Kappaphycus and Eucheuma

ABSTRACT Seaweed farming has the potential to produce feedstocks for many applications, including food, feeds, fertilizers, biostimulants, and biofuels. Seaweeds have advantages over land-based biomass in that they require no freshwater inputs and no allocation of arable land. To date, seaweed farming has not been practiced at scales relevant to meaningful biofuel production. Here we describe a techno-economic model of large-scale seaweed farms and its application to the cultivation of the cool temperate species Saccharina latissima (sugar kelp) and the tropical seaweed Eucheumatopsis isiformis. At farm scales of 1000 ha or more, our model suggests that farm gate production costs in waters up to 200 km from the onshore support base are likely to range between $200 and $300 per dry tonne. The model also suggests that production costs below $100 per dry tonne may be achievable in some settings, which would make these seaweeds economically competitive with land-based biofuel feedstocks. While encouraging, these model results and some assumptions on which they are based require further field validation.

https://doi.org/10.1080/26388081.2022.2111271

Erick I Ask

Papers

Advances in cultivation technology of commercial eucheumatoid species: a review with suggestions for future research.

Reproductive Biology and Eco-physiology of Farmed Kappaphycus and Eucheuma

Estimating production cost for large-scale seaweed farms