Harvested by advanced technical systems honed over decades of research and development, wind energy has become a mainstream energy resource. However, continued innovation is needed to realize the potential of wind to serve the global demand for clean energy. Here, we outline three interdependent, cross-disciplinary grand challenges underpinning this research endeavor. The first is the need for a deeper understanding of the physics of atmospheric flow in the critical zone of plant operation. The second involves science and engineering of the largest dynamic, rotating machines in the world. The third encompasses optimization and control of fleets of wind plants working synergistically within the electricity grid. Addressing these challenges could enable wind power to provide as much as half of our global electricity needs and perhaps beyond.

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Grand challenges in the science of wind energy

If model parameterizations of unresolved physics, such as the variety of upper ocean mixing processes, are to hold over the large range of time and space scales of importance to climate, they must be strongly physically based. Observations, theories, and models of oceanic vertical mixing are surveyed. Two distinct regimes are identified: ocean mixing in the boundary layer near the surface under a variety of surface forcing conditions (stabilizing, destabilizing, and wind driven), and mixing in the ocean interior due to internal waves, shear instability, and double diffusion (arising from the different molecular diffusion rates of heat and salt). Mixing schemes commonly applied to the upper ocean are shown not to contain some potentially important boundary layer physics. Therefore a new parameterization of oceanic boundary layer mixing is developed to accommodate some of this physics. It includes a scheme for determining the boundary layer depth h, where the turbulent contribution to the vertical shear of a bulk Richardson number is parameterized. Expressions for diffusivity and nonlocal transport throughout the boundary layer are given. The diffusivity is formulated to agree with similarity theory of turbulence in the surface layer and is subject to the conditions that both it and its vertical gradient match the interior values at h. This nonlocal “K profile parameterization” (KPP) is then verified and compared to alternatives, including its atmospheric counterparts. Its most important feature is shown to be the capability of the boundary layer to penetrate well into a stable thermocline in both convective and wind-driven situations. The diffusivities of the aforementioned three interior mixing processes are modeled as constants, functions of a gradient Richardson number (a measure of the relative importance of stratification to destabilizing shear), and functions of the double-diffusion density ratio, Rρ. Oceanic simulations of convective penetration, wind deepening, and diurnal cycling are used to determine appropriate values for various model parameters as weak functions of vertical resolution. Annual cycle simulations at ocean weather station Papa for 1961 and 1969–1974 are used to test the complete suite of parameterizations. Model and observed temperatures at all depths are shown to agree very well into September, after which systematic advective cooling in the ocean produces expected differences. It is argued that this cooling and a steady salt advection into the model are needed to balance the net annual surface heating and freshwater input. With these advections, good multiyear simulations of temperature and salinity can be achieved. These results and KPP simulations of the diurnal cycle at the Long-Term Upper Ocean Study (LOTUS) site are compared with the results of other models. It is demonstrated that the KPP model exchanges properties between the mixed layer and thermocline in a manner consistent with observations, and at least as well or better than alternatives.

Oceanic vertical mixing: a review and a model with a nonlocal boundary layer parameterization

Wind energy research: State-of-the-art and future research directions

A review of research on steel eccentrically braced frames

Controlled rocking steel braced frames (CRSBFs) are being developed as a seismic force resisting system that can be constructed economically to avoid structural damage and residual deformations following an earthquake. In a CRSBF, selected columns are permitted to uplift from the foundation in response to severe seismic loading, and posttensioning and energy dissipation are selected to control the magnitude of the rocking response. Despite extensive experimental testing to demonstrate that this behavior is stable and repeatable, there has been a lack of comprehensive guidance for potential designers of CRSBFs. This paper proposes a performance-based design methodology for CRSBFs, which consists of defining the performance objectives, designing the base rocking joint based on a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) model, and capacity protecting the rest of the structure for the maximum forces expected during the rocking response. This paper focuses on the design of the base rocking joint, while Part II ...

Performance-Based Seismic Design of Controlled Rocking Steel Braced Frames. I: Methodological Framework and Design of Base Rocking Joint

Building period formulas in seismic design code are evaluated with over 800 apparent building periods from 191 building stations and 67 earthquake events. The evaluation is carried out with the formulas in ASCE 7-05 for steel and RC moment-resisting frames, shear wall buildings, braced frames, and other structural types. Qualitative comparison of measured periods and periods calculated from the code formulas shows that the formula for steel moment-resisting frames generally predicts well the lower bound of the measured periods for all building heights. But the differences between the periods from code formula and measured periods of low- to-medium rise buildings are relatively high. In addition, the periods of essential buildings designed with the importance factor are about 40% shorter than the periods of non-essential buildings. The code formula for RC moment-resisting frames describes well the lower bound of measured periods. The formula for braced frames accurately predicts the lower bound periods of low-to-medium rise buildings. The formula for shear wall buildings overestimates periods for all building heights. For buildings that are classified as other structural types, the measured building periods can be much shorter than the periods calculated with the code formula. Based on these observations, it is suggested to use Cr factor of 0.015 for shear walls and other structural types. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Evaluation of building period formulas for seismic design

Case study: Analytical investigation on the failure of a two-story RC building damaged during the 2007 Pisco-Chincha earthquake

In this paper, the live load factor in the Strength I Limit State in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications is calibrated based on state-specific traffic environments and bridge configurations. As the initial development of the live load factor in the LRFD specifications was intended to be applied at the national level, state-specific traffic conditions, such as traffic volume, truck load, or bridge configurations, were not considered in the development process. In addition, due to the lack of reliable U.S. truck weight data in the early 1990s, truck data from Ontario, Canada, collected in the 1970s were used for the initial AASHTO calibration. Hence, the application of the live load factor in the LRFD specifications may result in over- or under-designed bridges for a specific state. Through reliability analysis of bridges based on state-specific traffic and bridge conditions, the live load factor can be recalibrated to achieve both reliable and economical bridge design. In this study, the traffic d...

Calibration of Live-Load Factor in LRFD Bridge Design Specifications Based on State-Specific Traffic Environments

Experimental analysis of one-way composite steel deck slabs voided by circular paper tubes: Shear strength and moment–shear interaction

During extreme tropical storm systems such as hurricanes, offshore wind turbines are required to have adequate structural integrity in parked condition and with blades pitched to feather. Such turbine states are preferred in order to mitigate loads on the turbine blades; simultaneously, yaw control is required so as to track the changing wind direction in this configuration. During a hurricane, however, it is possible that a turbine's yaw control system might operate abnormally due to damage of the control and protection system or due to loss of the electric grid and/or insufficient backup power. In earlier studies, the authors have shown that feathered blades can lead to higher tower bending moments in the side-to-side (lateral) direction rather than in the fore-aft (longitudinal) direction. In the present study, we carry out an in-depth investigation of the effect of several alternative parked configurations on an offshore turbine's response using numerical simulations with coupled wind-wave fields duri...

Eungsoo Kim

Papers

Evaluation of building period formulas for seismic design

Case study: Analytical investigation on the failure of a two-story RC building damaged during the 2007 Pisco-Chincha earthquake

Calibration of Live-Load Factor in LRFD Bridge Design Specifications Based on State-Specific Traffic Environments

Experimental analysis of one-way composite steel deck slabs voided by circular paper tubes: Shear strength and moment–shear interaction

Hurricane-Induced Loads on Offshore Wind Turbines with Considerations for Nacelle Yaw and Blade Pitch Control