The objective of this paper is to give a comprehensive introduction to applied cryptography with an engineer or computer scientist in mind. The emphasis is on the knowledge needed to create practical systems which supports integrity, confidentiality, or authenticity. Topics covered includes an introduction to the concepts in cryptography, attacks against cryptographic systems, key use and handling, random bit generation, encryption modes, and message authentication codes. Recommendations on algorithms and further reading is given in the end of the paper. This paper should make the reader able to build, understand and evaluate system descriptions and designs based on the cryptographic components described in the paper.

[서평]「Applied Cryptography」

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Bioelectrical Signal Processing In Cardiac And Neurological Applications

Authentication is an essential cryptographic primitive that confirms the identity of parties during communications. For security, it is important that these identities are complex, in order to make them difficult to clone or guess. In recent years, physically unclonable functions (PUFs) have emerged, in which identities are embodied in structures, rather than stored in memory elements. PUFs provide “digital fingerprints,” where information is usually read from the static entropy of a system, rather than having an identity artificially programmed in, preventing a malicious party from making a copy for nefarious use later on. Many concepts for the physical source of the uniqueness of these PUFs have been developed for multiple different applications. While certain types of PUF have received a great deal of attention, other promising suggestions may be overlooked. To remedy this, we present a review that seeks to exhaustively catalogue and provide a complete organisational scheme towards the suggested concepts for PUFs. Furthermore, by carefully considering the physical mechanisms underpinning the operation of different PUFs, we are able to form relationships between PUF technologies that previously had not been linked and look toward novel forms of PUF using physical principles that have yet to be exploited.

A PUF taxonomy

A physical unclonable function (PUF) is a device that exploits inherent randomness introduced during manufacturing to give a physical entity a unique ‘fingerprint’ or trust anchor. These devices are .of potential use in a variety of applications from anti-counterfeiting, identification, authentication and key generation to advanced protocols such as oblivious transfer, key exchange, key renovation and virtual proof of reality. Here we review the development of PUFs, including those that exploit optical, circuit time-delay and volatile/non-volatile memory characteristics. We examine the various applications of PUFs, and consider the security issues that they must confront, highlighting known attacks to date and potential countermeasures. We also consider the key areas for future development such as bit-specific reliability, reconfigurability and public key infrastructure. This Review Article examines the development of physical unclonable functions, which exploit inherent randomness to give a physical entity a unique ‘fingerprint’ or trust anchor, considering the various potential applications of these devices and the security issues that they must confront.

Physical unclonable functions

In this paper, we present a comprehensive survey of authentication protocols for Internet of Things (IoT). Specifically, we select and in-detail examine more than forty authentication protocols developed for or applied in the context of the IoT under four environments, including: (1) Machine to machine communications (M2M), (2) Internet of Vehicles (IoV), (3) Internet of Energy (IoE), and (4) Internet of Sensors (IoS). We start by reviewing all survey articles published in the recent years that focusing on different aspects of the IoT idea. Then, we review threat models, countermeasures, and formal security verification techniques used in authentication protocols for the IoT. In addition, we provide a taxonomy and comparison of authentication protocols for the IoT in form of tables in five terms, namely, network model, goals, main processes, computation complexity, and communication overhead. Based on the current survey, we identify open issues and suggest hints for future research.

Authentication Protocols for Internet of Things: A Comprehensive Survey

A physically unclonable function (PUF) is an irreversible probabilistic function that produces a random bit string. It is simple to implement but hard to predict and emulate. PUFs have been widely proposed as security primitives to provide device identification and authentication. In this paper, we propose a novel dynamic-memory-based PUF [dynamic RAM PUF (DRAM PUF)] for the authentication of electronic hardware systems. The DRAM PUF relies on the fact that the capacitor in the DRAM initializes to random values at startup time. Most PUF designs require custom circuits to convert unique analog characteristics into digital bits, but using our method, no extra circuitry is required to achieve a reliable 128-bit PUF. The results show that the proposed DRAM PUF provides a large number of input patterns (challenges) compared with other memory-based PUF circuits such as static RAM PUFs. Our DRAM PUFs provide highly unique PUFs with a 0.4937 average interdie Hamming distance. We also propose an enrollment algorithm to achieve highly reliable results to generate PUF identifications for system-level security. This algorithm has been validated on real DRAMs with an experimental setup to test different operating conditions.

DRAM-Based Intrinsic Physically Unclonable Functions for System-Level Security and Authentication

Physical Unclonable Functions (PUF) are the result of random uncontrollable variables in the manufacturing process. A PUF can be used as a source of random but reliable data for applications such as generating chip identification and encryption keys. Among various types of PUFs, an intrinsic PUF is the result of a preexisting manufacturing process, does not require any additional circuitry, and is cost effective. In this paper, we introduce an intrinsic PUF based on dynamic random access memories (DRAM). DRAM PUFs can be used in low cost identification applications and also have several advantages over other PUFs such as large input patterns. The DRAM PUF relies on the fact that the capacitor in the DRAM initializes to random values at startup. We demonstrate real DRAM PUFs and describe an experimental setup to test different operating conditions on three DRAMs to achieve the highest reliable results. Finally, we select the most stable bits to use as chip ID using our enrollment algorithm.

DRAM based Intrinsic Physical Unclonable Functions for System Level Security

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a design implementation of embedded system design that connects a variety of devices, sensors, and physical objects to a larger connected network (e.g. the Internet) which requires human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction. While the IoT is expected to expand the user's connectivity and everyday convenience, there are serious security considerations that come into account when using the IoT for distributed authentication. Furthermore the incorporation of biometrics to IoT design brings about concerns of cost and implementing a ‘user-friendly’ design. In this paper, we focus on the use of electrocardiogram (ECG) signals to implement distributed biometrics authentication within an IoT system model. Our observations show that ECG biometrics are highly reliable, more secure, and easier to implement than other biometrics.

Evolving authentication design considerations for the internet of biometric things (IoBT)

A True Random Number Generator (TRNG) is an important security primitive used in a variety of applications including cryptographic algorithms, communication systems, simulations, etc. It is critical to be able to produce outputs consisting of fully unpredictable and unbiased bits in a cost-effective manner. In this paper, we present a robust hardware TRNG based on the Dynamic RAM (DRAM) remanence effect, which is a condition whereby information remains in a DRAM even after powering it down. The advantage of our hardware TRNG is that it forms from existing components with no extra circuitry. We assessed and tested the randomness of our proposed hardware TRNG by applying the NIST Statistical Test which indicates the unpredictability and nonrepeatability of our data. Given its strong NIST results, we believe that there is a potential for immediate cryptographic applications.

Robust hardware true random number generators using DRAM remanence effects

Recent developments have increased the demand for adequate security solutions, based on primitives that cannot be easily manipulated or altered, such as hardware-based primitives. Security primitives based on Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) can provide cost-efficient and practical security solutions, especially for resource-constrained devices, such as hardware used in the Internet of Things (IoT), as DRAMs are an intrinsic part of most contemporary computer systems. In this work, we present a comprehensive overview of the literature regarding DRAM-based security primitives and an extended classification of it, based on a number of different criteria. In particular, first, we demonstrate the way in which DRAMs work and present the characteristics being exploited for the implementation of security primitives. Then, we introduce the primitives that can be implemented using DRAM, namely Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) and True Random Number Generators (TRNGs), and present the applications of each of the two types of DRAM-based security primitives. We additionally proceed to assess the security such primitives can provide, by discussing potential attacks and defences, as well as the proposed security metrics. Subsequently, we also compare these primitives to other hardware-based security primitives, noting their advantages and shortcomings, and proceed to demonstrate their potential for commercial adoption. Finally, we analyse our classification methodology, by reviewing the criteria employed in our classification and examining their significance.

Fatemeh Tehranipoor

Papers

DRAM-Based Intrinsic Physically Unclonable Functions for System-Level Security and Authentication

DRAM based Intrinsic Physical Unclonable Functions for System Level Security

Evolving authentication design considerations for the internet of biometric things (IoBT)

Robust hardware true random number generators using DRAM remanence effects

An Overview of DRAM-Based Security Primitives