Data and computer simulations are reviewed to help better define the timing and magnitude of human influence on sediment flux--the Anthropocene epoch. Impacts on the Earth surface processes are not spatially or temporally homogeneous. Human influences on this sediment flux have a secondary effect on floodplain and delta-plain functions and sediment dispersal into the coastal ocean. Human impact on sediment production began 3000 years ago but accelerated more widely 1000 years ago. By the sixteenth century, societies were already engineering their environment. Early twentieth century mechanization has led to global signals of increased sediment flux in most large rivers. By the 1950s, this sediment disturbance signal reversed for many rivers owing to the proliferation of dams, and sediment load reduction below pristine conditions is the dominant signal today. A delta subsidence signal began in the 1930s and is now a dominant signal in terms of sea level for many coastal environments, overwhelming even the global warming imprint on sea level. Humans have engineered how most water and sediment are discharged into the coastal ocean. Hyperpycnal flow events have become more common for some rivers, and less common for other rivers. Bottom trawling is now widespread, suggesting that even continental shelves have received a significant but as yet quantified Anthropocene impact. The Anthropocene attains the level of a geological climate event, such as that seen in the transition between the Pleistocene and the Holocene.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/41061709.pdf

Sediment flux and the Anthropocene

Marine ecosystems' responses to climatic and anthropogenic forcings in the Mediterranean

Bottom trawling is a fishing technique whereby heavy nets and gear scrape along the sea bed, and is shown here to disturb sediment fluxes and modify the sea floor morphology over large spatial scales. The direct impact of bottom trawling on local fish populations has received much attention, but trawling also affects other aspects of the ocean environment. This paper shows that bottom trawling — a commercial practice in which heavy nets and gear are dragged along the ocean floor — induces sediment reworking and erosion, causing the gradient of the sea floor to become smoother over time. This reduces the morphological complexity of deep-sea environments. The authors draw parallels between the effects of bottom trawling at sea and intensive agriculture on land, with the important difference that, on land, ploughing takes place once or twice a year, whereas, at sea, bottom trawling can be a frequent occurrence. Bottom trawling is a non-selective commercial fishing technique whereby heavy nets and gear are pulled along the sea floor. The direct impact of this technique on fish populations1,2 and benthic communities3,4 has received much attention, but trawling can also modify the physical properties of seafloor sediments, water–sediment chemical exchanges and sediment fluxes5,6. Most of the studies addressing the physical disturbances of trawl gear on the seabed have been undertaken in coastal and shelf environments7,8, however, where the capacity of trawling to modify the seafloor morphology coexists with high-energy natural processes driving sediment erosion, transport and deposition9. Here we show that on upper continental slopes, the reworking of the deep sea floor by trawling gradually modifies the shape of the submarine landscape over large spatial scales. We found that trawling-induced sediment displacement and removal from fishing grounds causes the morphology of the deep sea floor to become smoother over time, reducing its original complexity as shown by high-resolution seafloor relief maps. Our results suggest that in recent decades, following the industrialization of fishing fleets, bottom trawling has become an important driver of deep seascape evolution. Given the global dimension of this type of fishery, we anticipate that the morphology of the upper continental slope in many parts of the world’s oceans could be altered by intensive bottom trawling, producing comparable effects on the deep sea floor to those generated by agricultural ploughing on land.

/pdf/ploughing-the-deep-sea-floor-1iqssltxsq.pdf

Ploughing the deep sea floor

Deep-sea fisheries operate globally throughout the world's oceans, chiefly targeting stocks on the upper and mid-continental slope and offshore seamounts. Major commercial fisheries occur, or have occurred, for species such as orange roughy, oreos, cardinalfish, grenadiers and alfonsino. Few deep fisheries have, however, been sustainable, with most deep-sea stocks having undergone rapid and substantial declines. Fishing in the deep sea not only harvests target species but can also cause unintended environmental harm, mostly from operating heavy bottom trawls and, to a lesser extent, bottom longlines. Bottom trawling over hard seabed (common on seamounts) routinely removes most of the benthic fauna, resulting in declines in faunal biodiversity, cover and abundance. Functionally, these impacts translate into loss of biogenic habitat from potentially large areas. Recent studies on longline fisheries show that their impact is much less than from trawl gear, but can still be significant. Benthic taxa, especially the dominant mega-faunal components of deep-sea systems such as corals and sponges, can be highly vulnerable to fishing impacts. Some taxa have natural resilience due to their size, shape, and structure, and some can survive in natural refuges inaccessible to trawls. However, many deep-sea invertebrates are exceptionally long-lived and grow extremely slowly: these biological attributes mean that the recovery capacity of the benthos is highly limited and prolonged, predicted to take decades to centuries after fishing has ceased. The low tolerance and protracted recovery of many deep-sea benthic communities has implications for managing environmental performance of deep-sea fisheries, including that (i) expectations for recovery and restoration of impacted areas may be unrealistic in acceptable time frames, (ii) the high vulnerability of deep-sea fauna makes spatial management—that includes strong and consistent conservation closures—an important priority, and (iii) biodiversity conservation should be > balanced with options for open areas that support sustainable fisheries.; ;

/pdf/the-impacts-of-deep-sea-fisheries-on-benthic-communities-a-1dlp5cysdw.pdf

The impacts of deep-sea fisheries on benthic communities: a review

The ocean contains unique biodiversity, provides valuable food resources and is a major sink for anthropogenic carbon. Marine protected areas (MPAs) are an effective tool for restoring ocean biodiversity and ecosystem services1,2, but at present only 2.7% of the ocean is highly protected3. This low level of ocean protection is due largely to conflicts with fisheries and other extractive uses. To address this issue, here we developed a conservation planning framework to prioritize highly protected MPAs in places that would result in multiple benefits today and in the future. We find that a substantial increase in ocean protection could have triple benefits, by protecting biodiversity, boosting the yield of fisheries and securing marine carbon stocks that are at risk from human activities. Our results show that most coastal nations contain priority areas that can contribute substantially to achieving these three objectives of biodiversity protection, food provision and carbon storage. A globally coordinated effort could be nearly twice as efficient as uncoordinated, national-level conservation planning. Our flexible prioritization framework could help to inform both national marine spatial plans4 and global targets for marine conservation, food security and climate action. Using a globally coordinated strategic conservation framework to plan an increase in ocean protection through marine protected areas can yield benefits for biodiversity, food provisioning and carbon storage.

/pdf/protecting-the-global-ocean-for-biodiversity-food-and-wbw3ijg3lf.pdf

Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate

Trawling-induced resuspension and dispersal of muddy sediments and dissolved elements in the Gulf of Lion (NW Mediterranean)

Modern sediment deposits on continental margins form a vast reservoir of particulate matter that is regularly affected by resuspension processes. Resuspension by bottom trawling on shelves with strong fishing activity can modify the scale of natural disturbance by waves and currents. Recent field data show that the impact of bottom trawls on fine sediment resuspension per unit surface is comparable with that of the largest storms. We assessed the impact of both natural and anthropogenic processes on the dispersal of riverborne particles and shelf sediments on the Gulf of Lion shelf. We performed realistic numerical simulations of resuspension and transport forced by currents and waves or by a fleet of bottom trawlers. Simulations were conducted for a 16-month period (January 1998–April 1999) to characterise the seasonal variability. The sediment dynamics takes into account bed armoring, ripple geometry and the cohesive and non-cohesive characteristics of the sediments. Essential but uncertain parameters (clay content, erosion fluxes and critical shear stress for cohesive sediment) were set with existing data. Resuspension by waves and currents was controlled by shear stress, whereas resuspension by trawls was controlled by density and distribution of the bottom trawler fleet. Natural resuspension by waves and currents mostly occurred during short seasonal episodes, and was concentrated on the inner shelf. Trawling-induced resuspension, in contrast, occurred regularly throughout the year and was concentrated on the outer shelf. The total annual erosion by trawls (5.6×106 t y−1, t for metric tonnes) was four orders of magnitude lower than the erosion induced by waves and currents (35.3×109 t y−1). However the net resuspension (erosion/deposition budget) for trawling (0.4×106 t y−1) was only one order of magnitude lower than that for waves and currents (9.2×106 t y−1). Off-shelf export concerned the finest fraction of the sediment (clays and fine silts) and took place primarily at the southwestern end of the Gulf. Off-shelf transport was favoured during the winter 1999 by a very intense episode of dense shelf water cascading. Export of sediment resuspended by trawls (0.4×106 t y−1) was one order of magnitude lower than export associated with natural resuspension (8.5×106 t y−1). Trawling-induced resuspension is thought to represent one-third of the total export of suspended sediment from the shelf. A simulation combining both resuspension processes reveals no significant changes in resuspension and export rates compared with the sum of each individual process, suggesting the absence of interference between both processes.

/pdf/impact-of-natural-waves-and-currents-and-anthropogenic-trawl-2s50hejy27.pdf

Impact of natural (waves and currents) and anthropogenic (trawl) resuspension on the export of particulate matter to the open ocean: Application to the Gulf of Lion (NW Mediterranean)

G. Le Corre

Papers

Trawling-induced resuspension and dispersal of muddy sediments and dissolved elements in the Gulf of Lion (NW Mediterranean)

Impact of natural (waves and currents) and anthropogenic (trawl) resuspension on the export of particulate matter to the open ocean: Application to the Gulf of Lion (NW Mediterranean)