http://gene-quantification.net/kubista-qpcr-review-mam-2006.pdf

The real-time polymerase chain reaction

There is increasing evidence that an ongoing cytokine-induced acute-phase response (sometimes called low-grade inflammation, but part of a widespread activation of the innate immune system) is closely involved in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes and associated complications such as dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis. Elevated circulating inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 predict the development of type 2 diabetes, and several drugs with anti-inflammatory properties lower both acute-phase reactants and glycemia (aspirin and thiazolidinediones) and possibly decrease the risk of developing type 2 diabetes (statins). Among the risk factors for type 2 diabetes, which are also known to be associated with activated innate immunity, are age, inactivity, certain dietary components, smoking, psychological stress, and low birth weight. Activated immunity may be the common antecedent of both type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis, which probably develop in parallel. Other features of type 2 diabetes, such as fatigue, sleep disturbance, and depression, are likely to be at least partly due to hypercytokinemia and activated innate immunity. Further research is needed to confirm and clarify the role of innate immunity in type 2 diabetes, particularly the extent to which inflammation in type 2 diabetes is a primary abnormality or partly secondary to hyperglycemia, obesity, atherosclerosis, or other common features of the disease.

https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/diacare/27/3/813.full.pdf

Inflammation and activated innate immunity in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes.

Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) is a chronic disorder that results from autoimmune destruction of the insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells. Much has been learned during the past decade about the underlying genetics, natural history, and pathogenesis of IDDM. In this review, we shall describe some of this new information and discuss how it might be used to prevent the disease. Epidemiology IDDM occurs most frequently in persons of northern European descent. Among other racial groups, such as blacks, Native Americans, and Asians, the disease is less common1. The incidence ranges from a low of 1 to 2 per 100,000 per . . .

The Pathogenesis of Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus

Physical therapists commonly treat people with diabetes for a wide variety of diabetes-associated impairments, including those from diabetes-related vascular disease. Diabetes is associated with both microvascular and macrovascular diseases affecting several organs, including muscle, skin, heart, brain, and kidneys. A common etiology links the different types of diabetes-associated vascular disease. Common risk factors for vascular disease in people with diabetes, specifically type 2 diabetes, include hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, hypertension, tobacco use, and obesity. Mechanisms for vascular disease in diabetes include the pathologic effects of advanced glycation end product accumulation, impaired vasodilatory response attributable to nitric oxide inhibition, smooth muscle cell dysfunction, overproduction of endothelial growth factors, chronic inflammation, hemodynamic dysregulation, impaired fibrinolytic ability, and enhanced platelet aggregation. It is becoming increasingly important for physical therapists to be aware of diabetes-related vascular complications as more patients present with insulin resistance and diabetes. The opportunities for effective physical therapy interventions (such as exercise) are significant.

Diabetes-Related Microvascular and Macrovascular Diseases in the Physical Therapy Setting

Although the epidemic of obesity has been accompanied by an increase in the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome, not all obese develop the syndrome and even lean individuals can be insulin resistant. Both lean and obese insulin resistant individuals have an excess of fat in the liver which is not attributable to alcohol or other known causes of liver disease, a condition defined as nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) by gastroenterologists. The fatty liver is insulin resistant. Liver fat is highly significantly and linearly correlated with all components of the metabolic syndrome independent of obesity. Overproduction of glucose, VLDL, CRP, and coagulation factors by the fatty liver could contribute to the excess risk of cardiovascular disease associated with the metabolic syndrome and NAFLD. Both of the latter conditions also increase the risk of type 2 diabetes and advanced liver disease. The reason why some deposit fat in the liver whereas others do not is poorly understood. Individuals with a fatty liver are more likely to have excess intraabdominal fat and inflammatory changes in adipose tissue. Intervention studies have shown that liver fat can be decreased by weight loss, PPARgamma agonists, and insulin therapy.

Fatty Liver: A Novel Component of the Metabolic Syndrome

The history of diabetes Introduction to the clinical problems of diabetes Classification and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus Epidemiology of diabetes Non-diabetic insulin biosynthesis, secretion and action Pathogenesis of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus Pathogenesis of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus Other types of diabetes mellitus Biochemical abnormalities in diabetes mellitus Management of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus Management of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus Acute metabolic complications Chronic diabetic complications Diabetes and intercurrent events Diabetes in special groups Living with diabetes The organization of diabetes care Future directions for diabetes research and management.

Textbook of Diabetes

Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus the clinical problems of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus the clinical problems of non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus the causes of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus the causes of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus other types of diabetes diabetic control and its management the metabolic importance of endogenous B-cell function and C-peptide treatment of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus hypoglycaemia and diabetes diabetic ketoacidosis, non-ketoic hyperosmolar coma and lactic acidosis diabetic microvascular disease - its nature and causes special groups living with diabetes - intercurrent events (surgery in diabetic patients) drugs and diabetes mellitus the diabetic foot the skin in diabetes mellitus sexual function in diabetic men spreading the load - the roles of the general practitioner and the diabetic specialist nurse.

Handbook of Diabetes

Part 1: General Mechanisms of Diabetic Complications Part 2: Diabetic Eye Disease Part 3: Diabetic Neuropathy Part 4: Diabetic Nephropathy Part 5: Macrovascular and Heart Disease in Diabetes Mellitus Part 6: Other Diabetic Complications

Chronic complications of diabetes

Preface: Setting the Scene 1. Know the Enemy 2. Of Man and Angel 3. First Steps in the Right Direction 4. The Ambassador's Ingenious Lady 5. Curiosa Americana 6. From Passion to Fashion 7. The greatest Improvement? 8. Everyday Tales of Country Folk 9. The Disinterested Divulger of a Salutary Blessing 10. Crusaders and Infidels 11. An Affront to the Rights of Man 12. More Fatal than Smallpox 13. The Most Beautiful Discovery or a Disastrous Illusion? 14. Lest we Forget 15. Death Throes of a Clinical Curiosity 16. Legacy of an Angel

Angel of Death: The Story of Smallpox

A Gentle Introduction 1. A Plague from Nowhere 2. The Crippler 3. The Virus That Never Was 4. Germs of Ideas 5. Lost in Transmission 6. Fear is the Key 7. First Do No Harm 8. Dead or Alive 9. Front Runner 10. Poles Apart 11. In the Opposite Corner 12. Loose Ends and a Gordian Knot 13. Looking Forward to a Retrospective

Gareth Williams

Papers

Textbook of Diabetes

Handbook of Diabetes

Chronic complications of diabetes

Angel of Death: The Story of Smallpox

Paralysed with Fear: The Story of Polio