Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

The Theory of Island Biogeography

Summary Background Antibiotic drug consumption is a major driver of antibiotic resistance. Variations in antibiotic resistance across countries are attributable, in part, to different volumes and patterns for antibiotic consumption. We aimed to assess variations in consumption to assist monitoring of the rise of resistance and development of rational-use policies and to provide a baseline for future assessment. Methods With use of sales data for retail and hospital pharmacies from the IMS Health MIDAS database, we reviewed trends for consumption of standard units of antibiotics between 2000 and 2010 for 71 countries. We used compound annual growth rates to assess temporal differences in consumption for each country and Fourier series and regression methods to assess seasonal differences in consumption in 63 of the countries. Findings Between 2000 and 2010, consumption of antibiotic drugs increased by 35% (from 52 057 163 835 standard units to 70 440 786 553). Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa accounted for 76% of this increase. In most countries, antibiotic consumption varied significantly with season. There was increased consumption of carbapenems (45%) and polymixins (13%), two last-resort classes of antibiotic drugs. Interpretation The rise of antibiotic consumption and the increase in use of last-resort antibiotic drugs raises serious concerns for public health. Appropriate use of antibiotics in developing countries should be encouraged. However, to prevent a striking rise in resistance in low-income and middle-income countries with large populations and to preserve antibiotic efficacy worldwide, programmes that promote rational use through coordinated efforts by the international community should be a priority. Funding US Department of Homeland Security, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, US National Institutes of Health, Princeton Grand Challenges Program.

/pdf/global-antibiotic-consumption-2000-to-2010-an-analysis-of-cvt93oclxu.pdf

Global antibiotic consumption 2000 to 2010: an analysis of national pharmaceutical sales data

Drosophila: A laboratory manual

Pollution due to heavy metals is currently a serious problems affecting water bodies. The removal of heavy metals is of great concern due to their toxicity at trace levels and accumulation in the biosystem. Here we review the technical feasibility of biosorption and ion exchange methods for the removal of various heavy metals from the aqueous media. Chemical pretreatment of low-cost biosorbents are presented. Chemically modified biosorbents exhibit far better adsorption capacities than unmodified ones. We also highlighted the effect of pH on the biosorption for maximal uptake of heavy metals, because pH modifies the surface charge of the biosorbent as well as the speciation of heavy metals.

Removal of heavy metal ions from aqueous system by ion-exchange and biosorption methods

Mosquitoes represent the major arthropod vectors of human disease worldwide transmitting malaria, lymphatic ﬁlariasis, and arboviruses such as dengue virus and Zika virus. Unfortunately, no treatment (in the form of vaccines or drugs) is available for most of these diseases andvectorcontrolisstillthemainformofprevention. Thelimitationsoftraditionalinsecticide-based strategies, particularly the development of insecticide resistance, have resulted in signiﬁcant efforts to develop alternative eco-friendly methods. Biocontrol strategies aim to be sustainable and target a range of different mosquito species to reduce the current reliance on insecticide-based mosquito control. In thisreview, weoutline non-insecticide basedstrategiesthat havebeenimplemented orare currently being tested. We also highlight the use of mosquito behavioural knowledge that can be exploited for control strategies.

https://arpi.unipi.it/bitstream/11568/810174/2/Benelli_810174.pdf

Biological Control of Mosquito Vectors: Past, Present, and Future

The aquatic bugs Anisops bouvieri Kirkaldy 1704 (Heteroptera: Notonectidae), Diplonychus (=Sphaerodema) rusticus Fabricius 1781, and Diplonychus annulatus Fabricius 1781 (Heteroptera: Belostomatidae) are common members of the freshwater insect communities of the East Calcutta Wetlands along the eastern fringe of Kolkata, India. These insects are established predators of dipteran larvae and other organisms. A comparative account of their predatory efficiency was made using larvae of Culex quinquefasciatus Say 1823 in the laboratory. It was revealed that a single adult of A. bouvieri could consume 28–34 fourth-instar mosquito larvae per day, D. rusticus 11–87 fourth-instar mosquito larvae per day, and D. annulatus 33–122 fourth-instar mosquito larvae per day, depending upon the prey and predator densities. The mean predation rate of A. bouvieri and D. annulatus remained stable over a 6-day feeding period but varied for D. rusticus. The predatory impact (PI) values were 14.77–17.31, 46.9–55.73, and 61.74–72.72 larvae/day for A. bouvieri, D. rusticus, and D. annulatus, respectively. Compared to these, the clearance rate (CR) value range was 9.06–13.25 for A. bouvieri, 13.64–15.99 for D. rusticus, and 13.50–16.52 larvae l/day/predator for D. annulatus. The values of mutual interference, “m,” remained 0.06–0.78 for A. bouvieri, 0.003–0.25 for D. rusticus, and 0.09–0.27 for D. annulatus, and did not vary between the days. The difference in predatory efficiency, CR, and PI values varied significantly among the three predators, indicating the possible difference in the function as predators occupying the same guild. It can be assumed that these predators play an important role in larval population regulation of mosquitoes and thereby impart an effect on species composition and interactions in the aquatic insect communities of the wetlands and other similar habitats where they occur.

A comparative study of predation of three aquatic heteropteran bugs on Culex quinquefasciatus larvae

Predation potential of odonates on mosquito larvae: Implications for biological control

Household disposables as breeding habitats of dengue vectors: linking wastes and public health.

Tropical aquatic environments host a large number of predatory insects including heteropteran water bugs Anisops bouvieri Kirkaldy, 1704 (Heteroptera: Notonectidae), Diplonychus (=Sphaerodema) rusticus Fabricius, 1781 (Heteroptera: Belostomatidae), and Diplonychus (=Sphaerodema) annulatus Fabricius, 1781 (Heteroptera: Belostomatidae) feeding on a range of organisms. In tropical and subtropical wetlands, ponds, and temporary pools these predators play a role in regulation of dipteran populations, particularly mosquitoes and chironomids. Their relative abilities to control mosquitoes depend in part on predator preference for mosquitoes in relation to other natural prey, and the predators’ propensities to switch to mosquitoes as mosquito density increases. The prey electivity and switching dynamics of these predatory water bugs were evaluated in the laboratory under various prey densities, using two instars (II and IV) of chironomid and mosquito larvae as prey. Studies of electivity at relatively high densities (20 prey L−1) in small (5 L) vessels demonstrated that all predators showed opportunistic foraging as the mosquito:chironomid ratio changed, with some evidence that mosquito larvae were positively selected over chironomids. In particular, Anisops showed strong electivity for mosquitoes when presented with any ratio of large mosquito and chironomid prey in the high density experiment, although the preference was not expressed in lower density (2.5 prey L−1) treatments executed in 40 L vessels. In these lower density treatments, D. rusticus demonstrated higher electivity for mosquitoes when the mosquito:chironomid ratio was high, consistent with non-significant trends observed in the higher density experiment. The positive electivity of D. rusticus for mosquitoes was reinforced in an experiment executed over 16 days at varying prey ratios, in which D. rusticus mosquito electivity was high and consistent while D. annulatus showed slight avoidance of mosquito larvae, and Anisops remained largely opportunistic in foraging on prey in proportion with availability. Anisops and D. rusticus are potentially good biocontrol agents for mosquito larvae, in that they preferentially consume mosquitoes under many circumstances but can readily forage on other prey when mosquito density is low.

Opportunistic foraging by heteropteran mosquito predators

Background & objectives: Predation potential of the dytiscid beetle, Rhantus sikkimensis Regimbart 1899 and the larvae of Toxorhynchites splendens Wiedemann 1819 occurring along with the larval stages of the mosquitoes in the annual lentic water bodies of Darjeeling was evaluated using the larvae of Culex quinquefasciatus Say 1823 as preys, in the laboratory under simulated natural conditions. Methods: Field collected R. sikkimensis and larvae of Tx. splendens were offered IV instar larvae of Cx. quinquefasciatus to observe the rate of predation, at varying prey and predator densities. Based on the data obtained on the predation for a period of three consecutive days, two indices of predation, predatory impact (PI) and clearance rate (CR) values were estimated, and compared between the predator species. Results: The rate of predation of IV instar Cx. quinquefasciatus larvae by R. sikkimensis ranged between 21.56 and 86.89 larvae per day, depending on the prey and predator densities. The PI value remained between 18.67 and 35.33 larvae/day depending on prey densities, while the CR ranged between 2.21 and 2.23 larvae litres/day/predator. Compared to these, the Tx. splendens larvae consumed the prey larvae at the rate of 0.67 to 34.22 larvae per day, depending on the prey and predator densities. The PI value ranged between 7.67 and 11.33 larvae/day, and the CR value ranged between 1.41 and 1.76 larvae litres/day/predator. The rate of predation, CR values and PI values of R. sikkimensis and Tx. splendens varied significantly. Interpretation & conclusion: Both the predators R. sikkimensis and larvae of Tx. splendens can consume a good number of mosquito larvae, though the rate of consumption between the two predators vary owing to the difference in the life history traits and features. It can be assumed that these predators play an important role in larval population regulation of mosquitoes and thereby impart an effect on species composition and interactions in the aquatic insect communities of Darjeeling Hills, India.

http://www.mrcindia.org/journal/issues/432066.pdf

Gautam Aditya

Papers

A comparative study of predation of three aquatic heteropteran bugs on Culex quinquefasciatus larvae

Predation potential of odonates on mosquito larvae: Implications for biological control

Household disposables as breeding habitats of dengue vectors: linking wastes and public health.

Opportunistic foraging by heteropteran mosquito predators

Predatory activity of Rhantus sikkimensis and larvae of Toxorhynchites splendens on mosquito larvae in Darjeeling, India.