The authors would like to thank M. Chabinyc, H. Ade, B. Collins, R. Noriega, K. Vandewal, and D. Duong for fruitful discussions in the preparation of this review. Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource (SSRL) is a national user facility operated by Stanford University on behalf of the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences. This publication was partially supported by the Center for Advanced Molecular Photovoltaics (Award No. KUS-C1-015-21), made by King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST).

Quantitative determination of organic semiconductor microstructure from the molecular to device scale.

Probing surface and interface morphology with Grazing Incidence Small Angle X-Ray Scattering

A general introduction to x-ray diffraction and its application to the study of surfaces and interfaces is presented. The application of x-ray diffractkm to various problems in surface and interface science is illustrated through five different techniques: crystal truncation rod analysis, two-dimensional crystallography, three-dimensional structure analysis, the evanescent wave method and lineshape analysis. These techniques are explained with numerous examples from recent experiments and with the aid of an extensive bibliography.

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Surface X‐Ray Diffraction

Surface structure determination by X-ray diffraction

X-ray scattering is a structural characterization tool that has impacted diverse fields of study. It is unique in its ability to examine materials in real time and under realistic sample environments, enabling researchers to understand morphology at nanometer and angstrom length scales using complementary small and wide angle X-ray scattering (SAXS, WAXS), respectively. Herein, we focus on the use of SAXS to examine nanoscale particulate systems. We provide a theoretical foundation for X-ray scattering, considering both form factor and structure factor, as well as the use of correlation functions, which may be used to determine a particle’s size, size distribution, shape, and organization into hierarchical structures. The theory is expanded upon with contemporary use cases. Both transmission and reflection (grazing incidence) geometries are addressed, as well as the combination of SAXS with other X-ray and non-X-ray characterization tools. We conclude with an examination of several key areas of research w...

Small Angle X-ray Scattering for Nanoparticle Research

A method is developed for calculating the scattering of a beam of x rays striking the plane surface of a crystal at an angle below the critical angle for total external reflection The low penetration under this condition offers the possibility of determining the special structure of the surface layers, as has been pointed out by Marra, Eisenberger, and Cho A distorted-wave approach is developed whereby the crystal is first taken to be a homogeneous dielectric slab for the purpose of calculating the distorted wave The distorted wave is considered to illuminate the actual crystal, from which a scattering pattern can then be calculated The effects of absorption can be taken into account; in some cases absorption may offer the possibility of observing near-surface structures at angles of incidence larger than the critical angle Such illumination may also be useful for performing fluorescence analysis of the near-surface layers to determine their impurity content Synchrotron sources offer new opportunities for measurements of these kinds Thermal neutrons may also be used in place of x rays and offer unique opportunities for studying surface magnetization and, through inelastic scattering, surface phonons and, conceivably, surface magnons

George H. Vineyard

Papers

Grazing-incidence diffraction and the distorted-wave approximation for the study of surfaces