Pesticides are widely used in agricultural production to prevent or control pests, diseases, weeds, and other plant pathogens in an effort to reduce or eliminate yield losses and maintain high product quality. Although pesticides are developed through very strict regulation processes to function with reasonable certainty and minimal impact on human health and the environment, serious concerns have been raised about health risks resulting from occupational exposure and from residues in food and drinking water. Occupational exposure to pesticides often occurs in the case of agricultural workers in open fields and greenhouses, workers in the pesticide industry, and exterminators of house pests. Exposure of the general population to pesticides occurs primarily through eating food and drinking water contaminated with pesticide residues, whereas substantial exposure can also occur in or around the home. Regarding the adverse effects on the environment (water, soil and air contamination from leaching, runoff, and spray drift, as well as the detrimental effects on wildlife, fish, plants, and other non-target organisms), many of these effects depend on the toxicity of the pesticide, the measures taken during its application, the dosage applied, the adsorption on soil colloids, the weather conditions prevailing after application, and how long the pesticide persists in the environment. Therefore, the risk assessment of the impact of pesticides either on human health or on the environment is not an easy and particularly accurate process because of differences in the periods and levels of exposure, the types of pesticides used (regarding toxicity and persistence), and the environmental characteristics of the areas where pesticides are usually applied. Also, the number of the criteria used and the method of their implementation to assess the adverse effects of pesticides on human health could affect risk assessment and would possibly affect the characterization of the already approved pesticides and the approval of the new compounds in the near future. Thus, new tools or techniques with greater reliability than those already existing are needed to predict the potential hazards of pesticides and thus contribute to reduction of the adverse effects on human health and the environment. On the other hand, the implementation of alternative cropping systems that are less dependent on pesticides, the development of new pesticides with novel modes of action and improved safety profiles, and the improvement of the already used pesticide formulations towards safer formulations (e.g., microcapsule suspensions) could reduce the adverse effects of farming and particularly the toxic effects of pesticides. In addition, the use of appropriate and well-maintained spraying equipment along with taking all precautions that are required in all stages of pesticide handling could minimize human exposure to pesticides and their potential adverse effects on the environment.

https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/8/5/1402/pdf

Pesticide Exposure, Safety Issues, and Risk Assessment Indicators

Exposure to pesticides and the associated human health effects

Insect pathogens as biological control agents: Back to the future.

Effects of brassinosteroids on the plant responses to environmental stresses.

Perspectives for nano-biotechnology enabled protection and nutrition of plants

The role of chemical control targets formulations droplets nozzles hand-operated hydraulic sprayers power-operated hydraulic sprayers controlled droplet application electrostatically charged sprays air-assisted sprayers fogging seed treatment, dust and granule application aerial application injection, fumigation and other techniques maintenance of equipment safety precautions selection of spraying equipment.

Pesticide application methods

This major work provides a comprehensive review of the biology and pest status of insects known to infect cotton throughout the world. It is a logical follow-up to a classic work by E.O. Pearson published in 1958, although the latter focused on Africa. There are 19 chapters which systematically consider the major relevant insect groups, from Heliothis/Helicoverpa and Pectinophora, to aphids and termites. Other chapters explore various aspects of pest management, including the use of cultural, biological and chemical control methods. Emphasis is placed on integrated pest management(IPM), to minimize the use of insecticides and promote sustainable control methods. The book is a standard reference work for entomologists and those involved in cotton production.

Insect Pests of Cotton

A survey of pesticide application in Cameroon

Attitudes and behaviours regarding use of crop protection products—A survey of more than 8500 smallholders in 26 countries

Pesticides health, safety and the environment , Pesticides health, safety and the environment , کتابخانه دیجیتال جندی شاپور اهواز

Graham Matthews

Papers

Pesticide application methods

Insect Pests of Cotton

A survey of pesticide application in Cameroon

Attitudes and behaviours regarding use of crop protection products—A survey of more than 8500 smallholders in 26 countries

Pesticides: Health, Safety and the Environment