https://www.bond.org.uk/sites/default/files/resource-documents/using_icts_to_create_a_culture_of_transparency.pdf

Using ICTs to create a culture of transparency: E-government and social media as openness and anti-corruption tools for societies

Dedication Preface Foreword PART I: FRAME OF REFERENCE We begin with the idea of giving students the tools that increase their capacity for learning. The primary role of education is to increase student capacity for personal growth, social growth, and academic learning. Models of Teaching is an avenue to liberate student learning capacity and, by doing so, to help teachers take charge of their lives as teachers. CHAPTER 1: BEGINNING THE INQUIRY Creating Communities of Expert Learners On the whole, students are in schools and classes within those schools. Both need to be developed into learning communities and provided with the models of learning that enable them to become expert learners. We study how to build those learning communities. CHAPTER 2: WHERE MODELS OF TEACHING COME FROM Multiple Ways of Constructing Knowledge The history of teacher researchers comes to us in the form of models of teaching that enable us to construct vital environments for our students. Models have come from the ages and from teacher-researchers who have invented new ways of teaching. Some of these are submitted to research and development and how teachers can learn to use them. Those are the models that are included in this book. CHAPTER 3: STUDYING THE SLOWLY-GROWING KNOWLEDGE BASE IN EDUCATION A Basic Guide Through the Rhetorical Thickets We draw on descriptive studies, experimental studies, and experience to give us a fine beginning to what will eventually become a research-based profession. Here we examine what we have learned about how to design good instruction and effective curriculums. And, we learn how to avoid some destructive practices. CHAPTER 4: MODELS OF TEACHING AND TEACHING STYLES Three Sides of Teaching--Styles, Models, and Diversity We are people and our personalities greatly affect the environments that our students experience. And, as we use various models of teaching our selves -- our natural styles -- color how those models work in the thousands of classrooms in our society. Moreover, those models and our styles affect the achievement of the diverse students in our classes and schools. PART II: THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING FAMILYOF MODELS How can we and our students best acquire information, organize it, and explain it? For thousands of years philosophers, educators, psychologists, and artists have developed ways to gather and process information. Here are several live ones. CHAPTER 5: LEARNING TO THINK INDUCTIVELY Forming Concepts by Collecting and Organizing Information Human beings are born to build concepts. The vast intake of information is sifted and organized and the conceptual structures that guide our lives are developed. The inductive model builds on and enhances the inborn capacity of our students. CHAPTER 6: ATTAINING CONCEPTS Sharpening Basic Thinking Skills Students can develop concepts. They also can learn concepts developed by others. Concept attainment teaches students how to learn and use concepts and develop and test hypotheses. CHAPTER 7: THE PICTURE-WORD INDUCTIVE MODEL Developing Literacy across the Curriculum Built on the language experience approach, the picture-word inductive model enables beginning readers to develop sight vocabularies, learn to inquire into the structure of words and sentences, write sentences and paragraphs, and, thus, to be powerful language learners. In Chapter 19 the outstanding results from primary curriculums and curriculums for older struggling readers are displayed. CHAPTER 8: SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY AND INQUIRY TRAINING The Art of Making Inferences From the time of Aristotle, we have had educators who taught science-in-the-making rather than teaching a few facts and hoping for the best. We introduce you to a model of teaching that is science on the hoof, so to speak. This model has had effects, among other things, on improving the capacity of students to learn. We concentrate on the Biological Sciences Study Group, where for 40 years science teachers have shared information and generated new ideas. And, Inquiry training is a "best yet" model for teaching basic inquiry skills. CHAPTER 9: MEMORIZATION Getting the Facts Straight Memorization has had something of a bad name, mostly because of deadly drills. Contemporary research and innovative teachers have created methods that not only improve our efficiency in memorization, but also make the process delightful. CHAPTER 10: SYNECTICS The Arts of Enhancing Creative Thought Creative thought has often been thought of as the province of a special few, and something that the rest of us cannot aspire to. Not so. Synectics brings to all students the development of metaphoric thinking -- the foundation of creative thought. The model continues to improve. CHAPTER 11: LEARNING FROM PRESENTATIONS Advance Organizers Learning from presentations has almost as bad a name as learning by memorization. Ausubel developed a system for creating lectures and other presentations that will increase learner activity and, subsequently, learning. PART III: THE SOCIAL FAMILY OF MODELS Working together might just enhance all of us. The social family expands what we can do together and generates the creation of democracy in our society in venues large and small. In addition, the creation of learning communities can enhance the learning of all students dramatically. CHAPTER 12: PARTNERS IN LEARNING From Dyads to Group Investigation Can two students who are paired in learning increase their learning? Can students organized into a democratic learning community apply scientific methods to their learning? You bet they can. Group Investigation can be used to redesign schools, increase personal, social, and academic learning among all students, and -- is very satisfying to teach. CHAPTER 13: THE STUDY OF VALUES Role Playing and Public Policy Education Values provide the center of our behavior, helping us get direction and understand other directions. Policy issues involve the understanding of values and the costs and benefits of selecting some solutions rather than others. In these models, values are central. Think for a moment about the issues that face our society right now -- research on cells, international peace, including our roles in Iraq and the rest of the Middle East, the battle against AIDS, poverty, and who controls the decisions about pregnancy and abortion. Not to mention just getting along together. PART IV: THE PERSONAL FAMILY OF MODELS The learner always does the learning. His or her personality is what interacts with the learning environment. How do we give the learner centrality when we are trying to get that same person to grow and respond to tasks we believe will enhance growth? CHAPTER 14: NONDIRECTIVE TEACHING The Learner at the Center How do we think about ourselves as learners? As people? How can we organize schooling so that the personalities and emotions of students are taken into account? Let us inquire into the person who is the center of the education process. CHAPTER 15: DEVELOPING POSITIVE SELF-CONCEPTS The Inner Person of Boys and Girls, Men and Women If you feel great about yourself, you are likely to become a better learner. But you begin where you are. Enhancing self concept is a likely avenue. The wonderful work by the SIMs group in Kansas (see Chapter 3) has demonstrated how much can be accomplished. PART V: THE BEHAVIORAL SYSTEMS FAMILY OF MODELS We are what we do. So how do we learn to practice more productive behaviors? Let's explore some of the possibilities. CHAPTER 16: LEARNING TO LEARN FROM MASTERY LEARNING Bit by bit, block by block, we climb our way up a ladder to mastery. CHAPTER 17: DIRECT INSTRUCTION Why beat around the bush when you can just deal with things directly? Let's go for it! However, finesse is required, and that is what this chapter is all about. CHAPTER 18: LEARNING FROM SIMULATIONS Training and Self-Training How much can we learn from quasi-realities? The answer is, a good deal. Simulations enable us to learn from virtual realities where we can experience environments and problems beyond our present environment. Presently, they range all the way to space travel, thanks to NASA and affiliated developers. PART VI: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, DIVERSITY, AND CURRICULUM The rich countryside of humanity makes up the population of our schools. The evidence suggests that diversity enhances the energy of schools and classrooms. However, some forms of teaching make it difficult for individual differences to flourish. We emphasize the curriculums and models of teaching that enable individual differences to thrive. CHAPTER 19: LEARNING STYLES AND MODELS OF TEACHING Making Discomfort Productive By definition, learning requires knowing, thinking, or doing things we couldn't do before the learning took place. Curriculums and teaching need to be shaped to take us where we haven't been. The trick is to develop an optimal mismatch in which we are pushed but the distance is manageable. CHAPTER 20: EQUITY Gender, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Background The task here is to enable differences to become an advantage. The best curriculums and models of teaching do just that. In other words, if differences are disadvantages, it is because of how we teach. CHAPTER 21: CREATING AND TESTING CURRICULUMS The Conditions of Learning Robert Gagne's framework for building curriculums is discussed and illustrated. This content is not simple, but it is powerful. CHAPTER 22: TWO WORDS ON THE FUTURE The Promise of Distance Learning and Using Models of Teaching to Ensure that No Child is Left Behind. Afterword APPENDIX PEER COACHING GUIDES Related Literature and References Index

教学模式 = Models of Teaching

Performance measurement is not an end in itself. So why should public managers measure performance? Because they may find such measures helpful in achieving eight specific managerial purposes. As part of their overall management strategy, public managers can use performance measures to evaluate, control, budget, motivate, promote, celebrate, learn, and improve. Unfortunately, no single performance measure is appropriate for all eight purposes. Consequently, public managers should not seek the one magic performance measure. Instead, they need to think seriously about the managerial purposes to which performance measurement might contribute and how they might deploy these measures. Only then can they select measures with the characteristics necessary to help achieve each purpose. Without at least a tentative theory about how performance measures can be employed to foster improvement (which is the core purpose behind the other seven), public managers will be unable to decide what should be measured. Everyone is measuring performance. 1 Public managers are measuring the performance of their organizations, their contractors, and the collaboratives in which they participate. Congress, state legislatures, and city councils are insisting that executive-branch agencies periodically report measures of performance. Stakeholder organizations want performance measures so they can hold government accountable. Journalists like nothing better than a front-page bar chart that compares performance measures for various jurisdictions—whether they are average test scores for the city’s schools or FBI uniform crime statistics for the state’s cities. Moreover, public agencies are taking the initiative to publish compilations of their own performance mea

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Why Measure Performance? Different Purposes Require Different Measures

This article focuses specifically on how and why managers might go about using stakeholder identification and analysis techniques in order to help their organizations meet their mandates, fulfill their missions and create public value. A range of stakeholder identification and analysis techniques is reviewed. The techniques cover: organizing participation; creating ideas for strategic interventions, including problem formulation and solution search; building a winning coalition around proposal development, review and adoption; and implementing, monitoring and evaluating strategic interventions. The article argues that wise use of stakeholder analyses can help frame issues that are solvable in ways that are technically feasible and politically acceptable and that advance the common good. The article concludes with a number of recommendations for management research, education and practice.

What to do when Stakeholders matter: Stakeholder Identification and Analysis Techniques

C an governmental organizations change? Reform initiatives have swept through governments in the United States and overseas, again and again bringing news about eff orts to reinvent, transform, or reform government agencies ( Barzelay 2001; Kettl 2000; Pollitt and Bouckaert 2000; Stillman 1999 ). Curiously, however, this recurrent theme of change in government agencies has not induced a high volume of articles that explicitly address the topic in public administration journals. # ere are prominent exceptions to this observation (e.g., Bryson and Anderson 2000; Chackerian and Mavima 2000; Mani 1995; Wise 2002 ) and journal articles about topics related to organizational change (e.g., Berman and Wang 2000; Brudney and Wright 2002; Hood and Peters 2004 ). Articles reporting research and theory with titles containing “ organizational change ” and with that theme as a focal topic, however, appear with much less regularity in public administration journals than in research journals focusing on general management and organization theory.

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Managing Successful Organizational Change in the Public Sector

Collaboration is a necessary foundation for dealing with both natural and technological hazards and disasters and the consequences of terrorism. This analysis describes the structure of the American emergency management system, the charts development of the Federal Emergency Management Agency, and identifies conflicts arising from the creation of the Department of Homeland Security and the attempt to impose a command and control system on a very collaborative organizational culture in a very collaborative sociopolitical and legal context. The importance of collaboration is stressed, and recommendations are offered on how to improve the amount and value of collaborative activities. New leadership strategies are recommended that derive their power from effective strategies and the transformational power of a compelling vision, rather than from hierarchy, rank, or standard operating procedures.

Collaboration and Leadership for Effective Emergency Management

Dramatic developments in information technology are transforming society, challenging our nation’s many governments to keep pace. As e-governance grows in popularity, Web pages could well become the new face of government. But how are citizens responding? We suggest that government Web sites may provide a new vehicle for citizen-initiated contacts with government, and, drawing from the literature on those traditional contacts, we propose a number of hypotheses on citizen interaction with government via the Web. To test those hypotheses, we examine data from a survey concerning how Georgians are contacting government via the Web. We find that citizen visits to governmental Web sites are increasingly common, and as such appear to have become a major new form of the traditional citizen-initiated contact. To date, however, most of these Web contacts have been made only to obtain information, thus lacking the interactive quality crucial to other citizen-initiated contacts. As an encouraging finding for government, visitors to governmental Web sites appear to be mostly pleased with their experiences, rating those sites as at least comparable in quality to other Web sites. A discouraging finding, however, is that the demographics of these visitors suggest cause for concern, since the digital divide is even more pronounced among government Web site visitors than among Internet users in general. In the concluding section, we discuss the implications of the findings for government and for future research. One of the most remarkable and dramatic changes in recent decades has been the explosion of interest in the Internet, with the phenomenon of e-commerce—unheard of only a decade ago—becoming in just a few years a principal growth area in the American economy. As use of the Web by the private sector has grown, the public sector has followed closely behind, and virtually all large U.S. governments and their agencies—federal, state, and local —now having their own Web sites. As public-sector Web sites proliferate and expand in function, they are rapidly becoming a new aspect of government. Many citizens who previously would visit or call gov

The New Face of Government: Citizen-Initiated Contacts in the Era of E-Government

Performance measurement has been part of the lexicon of public administration in the United States for several decades, but rhetoric has outdistanced practice by far in this area. Currently, however, there is a renewed interest in performance measures as an essential element of the results-oriented management movement that is sweeping the field, as reflected in legislative mandates and administrative initiatives as well as considerable conference and training activity and a revived stream of books and articles on the subject. Nevertheless, the extent to which performance measurement has taken hold in a meaningful way in public agencies is still an open question, particularly with respect to local government. Based on a survey of U.S. cities with populations of 25,000 and over, this article explores the extent to which performance measures are used and how they are used in contemporary municipal government. The Quest For Performance Measurement Performance measurement is an old idea that has taken on renewed importance. Measuring workload and worker efficiency was clearly part of the scientific management approach at the turn of the century, and the International City Management Association produced a publication on measuring municipal activities as early as 1943 (Ridley and Simon, 1943). In more modern times concern for measuring the performance of public programmatic entities arose with the interest in program budgeting in the 1960s and program evaluation in the 1970s. Harry Hatry and colleagues at the Urban Institute began publishing materials that promoted the use of performance measures and provided instruction on how to develop and use them (Hatry and Fisk, 1971; Waller, et al., 1976; Hatry, et al., 1977), while other authors talked about how to incorporate them in larger management processes (Altman, 1979; Epstein, 1984; Steiss, 1985; Wholey, 1983). A related but different stream of articles focused on performance measures as they play into the budgeting process (Grizzle, 1985; 1987; Brown and Pyers, 1988). Yet it has generally been understood that the promise and potential of performance measures greatly exceed their actual usefulness in practice. Indeed, one of the underlying premises of Downs and Larkey's The Search for Government Efficiency (1986) was that for a variety of reasons most governmental jurisdictions did not have the capability of measuring the performance of their programs. Performance Measurement in an Era of Public Management Reform A number of forces in the field of public administration have led to a renewed, or reinvigorated, interest in performance measurement in the 1990s. Taxpayer revolts, pressure for the privatization of public services, legislative initiatives aimed at controlling "runaway" spending, and the devolution of many responsibilities to lower levels of government have generated increased demands to hold government agencies accountable to legislatures and the public in terms of what they spend and the results they produce. In addition, the reinventing government movement initiated by Osborne and Gaebler in 1992 and Vice President Al Gore's National Performance Review in 1993 have called for a new way of thinking about how public agency performance is defined and measured. Driven in part by these external pressures and in part by their own motivation to provide cost-effective public services, public managers have been using a variety of approaches to strengthen the management capacity of their organizations, most notably through strategic planning (Bryson, 1995; Berry and Wechsler, 1995), through more encompassing strategic management processes (Eadie, 1989; Koteen, 1991; Vinzant and Vinzant, 1996), through quality management programs and reengineering processes (Berman and West, 1995; Cohen and Brand, 1993; Davenport, 1994; Hyde, 1995; Kravchuck and Leighton, 1993), and through benchmarking practices (Bruder, 1994; Keehley, et al. 1997), as well as reformed budgeting processes (Joyce, 1993; Lee, 1997). …

Performance Measurement in Municipal Government: Assessing the State of the Practice

This article focuses on the use of strategic planning and management processes in municipal governments with populations over 25,000. Strategic planning has been used in municipalities for 20 years now, but little is known about how it is used and the results obtained. In particular, we explore whether municipal governments tie other components of the overall strategic management process to their strategic plans. Findings do not show a dramatic expansion in the use of strategic planning, but there is some evidence of growing sophistication, as demonstrated by links to other management and decision-making activities. Managers were enthusiastic about their experiences with strategic planning and largely satisfied with their achievement of goals and objectives. Overall, we find a raising of the bar as far as strategic planning is concerned, but the use of comprehensive strategic management is only beginning to develop in a small number of leading-edge municipalities.

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Elements of Strategic Planning and Management in Municipal Government: Status after Two Decades

Lffective public administration in the age of results-oriented management requires public agencies to develop a capacity for strategic management, the central management process that integrates all major activities and functions and directs them toward advancing an organization's strategic agenda. Strategic management is concerned with strengthening the long-term viability and effectiveness of public sector organizations in terms of both substantive policy and management capacity. It integrates all other management processes to provide a systematic, coherent, and effective approach to establishing, attaining, monitoring, and updating an agency's strategic objectives. Strategic management is integrative in nature in the sense of (a) focusing attention across functional divisions and throughout various organizational levels on common goals, themes, and issues; (b) tying internal management processes and program initiatives to desired outcomes in the external environment; and (c) linking operational? tactical, day-to-day decisions to longer run strategic objectives. Particularly given the dynamic political and institutional environment within which many public agencies operate, an effective strategic management capability is essential for maintaining or strengthening the fit between the organization and its external stakeholders and managing for results within a clearly defined context of mission, mandates, values, and . . vlslon. Strategic management has been addressed in the public administration literature (Koteen, 1989; Nutt & Backoff, 1992; Rabin, Miller, & Hildreth, 1989; Steiss, 1985) but by no means as extensively as has its most critical component, strategic planning, or other management approaches such as total quality management. However, a more recent article by Mlnzant and Vlnzant (1996a) goes a long way toward refocusing appropriate attention on the role of strategic management in the public sector and discussing implementation issues and strategies in an instructive manner. The purpose of the present article is to raise awareness of the central importance of strategic management in government, define the critical elements in a holistic model of strategic management, discuss the strategic management process, and

Gregory Streib

Papers

Collaboration and Leadership for Effective Emergency Management

The New Face of Government: Citizen-Initiated Contacts in the Era of E-Government

Performance Measurement in Municipal Government: Assessing the State of the Practice

Elements of Strategic Planning and Management in Municipal Government: Status after Two Decades

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR Concepts, Models, and Processes