The emerging field of plasmonics has yielded methods for guiding and localizing light at the nanoscale, well below the scale of the wavelength of light in free space. Now plasmonics researchers are turning their attention to photovoltaics, where design approaches based on plasmonics can be used to improve absorption in photovoltaic devices, permitting a considerable reduction in the physical thickness of solar photovoltaic absorber layers, and yielding new options for solar-cell design. In this review, we survey recent advances at the intersection of plasmonics and photovoltaics and offer an outlook on the future of solar cells based on these principles.

Plasmonics for improved photovoltaic devices

The desire to use and control photons in a manner analogous to the control of electrons in solids has inspired great interest in such topics as the localization of light, microcavity quantum electrodynamics and near-field optics1,2,3,4,5,6. A fundamental constraint in manipulating light is the extremely low transmittivity of apertures smaller than the wavelength of the incident photon. While exploring the optical properties of submicrometre cylindrical cavities in metallic films, we have found that arrays of such holes display highly unusual zero-order transmission spectra (where the incident and detected light are collinear) at wavelengths larger than the array period, beyond which no diffraction occurs. In particular, sharp peaks in transmission are observed at wavelengths as large as ten times the diameter of the cylinders. At these maxima the transmission efficiency can exceed unity (when normalized to the area of the holes), which is orders of magnitude greater than predicted by standard aperture theory. Our experiments provide evidence that these unusual optical properties are due to the coupling of light with plasmons — electronic excitations — on the surface of the periodically patterned metal film. Measurements of transmission as a function of the incident light angle result in a photonic band diagram. These findings may find application in novel photonic devices.

Extraordinary optical transmission through sub-wavelength hole arrays

Diamond-like carbon (DLC) is a metastable form of amorphous carbon with significant sp3 bonding. DLC is a semiconductor with a high mechanical hardness, chemical inertness, and optical transparency. This review will describe the deposition methods, deposition mechanisms, characterisation methods, electronic structure, gap states, defects, doping, luminescence, field emission, mechanical properties and some applications of DLCs. The films have widespread applications as protective coatings in areas, such as magnetic storage disks, optical windows and micro-electromechanical devices (MEMs).

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Diamond-like amorphous carbon

Since the first application of the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) phenomenon for sensing almost two decades ago, this method has made great strides both in terms of instrumentation development and applications. SPR sensor technology has been commercialized and SPR biosensors have become a central tool for characterizing and quantifying biomolecular interactions. This paper attempts to review the major developments in SPR technology. Main application areas are outlined and examples of applications of SPR sensor technology are presented. Future prospects of SPR sensor technology are discussed.

Surface plasmon resonance sensors: review

A new type of metallic electromagnetic structure has been developed that is characterized by having high surface impedance. Although it is made of continuous metal, and conducts dc currents, it does not conduct ac currents within a forbidden frequency band. Unlike normal conductors, this new surface does not support propagating surface waves, and its image currents are not phase reversed. The geometry is analogous to a corrugated metal surface in which the corrugations have been folded up into lumped-circuit elements, and distributed in a two-dimensional lattice. The surface can be described using solid-state band theory concepts, even though the periodicity is much less than the free-space wavelength. This unique material is applicable to a variety of electromagnetic problems, including new kinds of low-profile antennas.

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High-impedance electromagnetic surfaces with a forbidden frequency band

Surface plasmons on smooth surfaces.- Surface plasmons on surfaces of small roughness.- Surfaces of enhanced roughness.- Light scattering at rough surfaces without an ATR device.- Surface plasmons on gratings.- Conclusions.

Surface Plasmons on Smooth and Rough Surfaces and on Gratings

Electron avalanches and breakdown in gases

Interacting with Visual Interfaces on Mobile Devices.- Identification Criteria in Task Modeling.- HCI-Task Models and Smart Environments.- Themes in Human Work Interaction Design.- Evaluating User Experience in Technology Pilots.- Interface Model Elicitation from Textual Scenarios.- Virtual Fixtures for Secondary Tasks.- How 'learnable' are CASE tools in diverse user communities?.- A Prospect of Websites Evaluation Tools Based on Event Logs.- Habbo Hotel - Academic Studies in Mixed Feelings.- Improving Accessibility to Governmental Forms1.- Communicability in multicultural contexts: A study with the International Children's Digital Library.- Facing the digital divide in a participatory way - an exploratory study.- User Interface Input by Device Movement.- An End User Development Model to Augment Usability of Rule Association Mining Systems.- Investigating Entertainment and Learning in a Multi-User 3D Virtual Environment.- Openphone User Engagement and Requirements Solicitation in Low Literacy Users.- Complex and Dynamic Data Representation by Sonification.- Collaborative Knowledge Building for Decision Support System Development.- Multitouch Sensing for Collaborative Interactive Walls.- Visualization of Personalized Faceted Browsing.

H. Raether

Papers

Surface Plasmons on Smooth and Rough Surfaces and on Gratings

Electron avalanches and breakdown in gases

Excitation of Plasmons and Interband Transitions by Electrons

Surface plasmons on smooth surfaces

Surface plasmons on gratings