Context: Association between obesity and depression has repeatedly been established. For treatment and prevention purposes, it is important to acquire more insight into their longitudinal interaction. Objective: To conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis on the longitudinal relationship between depression, overweight, and obesity and to identify possible influencing factors. Data Sources: Studies were found using PubMed, PsycINFO, and EMBASE databases and selected on several criteria. Study Selection: Studies examining the longitudinal bidirectional relation between depression and overweight (body mass index 25-29.99) or obesity (body mass index >= 30) were selected. Data Extraction: Unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios (ORs) were extracted or provided by the authors. Data Synthesis: Overall, unadjusted ORs were calculated and subgroup analyses were performed for the 15 included studies (N = 58 745) to estimate the effect of possible moderators (sex, age, depression severity). Obesity at baseline increased the risk of onset of depression at follow-up (unadjusted OR, 1.55; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.22-1.98; P = 60 years) but not among younger persons (aged < 20 years). Baseline depression (symptoms and disorder) was not predictive of overweight over time. However, depression increased the odds for developing obesity (OR, 1.58; 95% CI, 1.33-1.87; P < .001). Subgroup analyses did not reveal specific moderators of the association. Conclusions: This meta-analysis confirms a reciprocal link between depression and obesity. Obesity was found to increase the risk of depression, most pronounced among Americans and for clinically diagnosed depression. In addition, depression was found to be predictive of developing obesity.

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/articlepdf/210608/yma90003_220_229.pdf

Overweight, Obesity, and Depression A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Longitudinal Studies

Epidemiological data are reviewed on the prevalence, course, socio-demographic correlates, and societal costs of major depression throughout the world. Major depression is estimated in these surveys to be a commonly occurring disorder. Although estimates of lifetime prevalence and course vary substantially across countries for reasons that could involve both substantive and methodological processes, the cross-national data are clear in documenting meaningful lifetime prevalence with wide variation in age-of-onset and high risk of lifelong chronic-recurrent persistence. A number of sociodemographic correlates of major depression are found consistently across countries, and cross-national data also document associations with numerous adverse outcomes, including difficulties in role transitions (e.g., low education, high teen childbearing, marital disruption, unstable employment), reduced role functioning (e.g., low marital quality, low work performance, low earnings), elevated risk of onset, persistence and...

https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031912-114409

The epidemiology of depression across cultures

Depression is a multicausal disorder and has been associated with the risk to develop cancer, dementia, diabetes, epilepsy and stroke. As a metabolic disorder depression has been associated with obesity, diabetes, insulin sensitivity, neuropeptide Y, glucose regulation, poor glycemic control, glucagone-like peptide-1, cholezystokinin, ghrelin, leptin, the endocannabinoid system, insulin-like growth factor and gastrin-releasing peptide. As a cardiovascular disease a close relationship exists between depression and blood pressure, heart rate, norepinephrine, sympathetic tone, vascular resistance, blood viscosity, plasma volume, intima thickness and atherosclerosis. Additionally blood coagulation, fibrinolysis, D-dimers, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 protein, platelet activation, VEGF, plasma nitric oxide and its synthase are changed in depressed patients. As an endocrinological and stress disorder depression has been connected with the concentration of free T4, TSH, CRH, arginine vasopressin, corticotrophin, corticosteroid release and ACTH. Depression as an inflammatory disorder is mediated by pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-1, interleukin-6, TNF-alpha, soluble interleukin-2 receptors, interferon-alpha, interleukin 8, interleukin-10, hs-CRP, acute phase proteins, haptoglobin, toll like receptor 4, interleukin-1beta, mammalian target of rapamycin pathway, substance P, cyclooxygenase-2, prostaglandin-E2, lipid peroxidation levels and acid sphingomyelinase. Nutritional factors might influence depression risk, i.e. the consumption of folate, omega-3 fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, olive oil, fish, fruits, vegetables, nuts, legumes, vitamin B6 and vitamin B12. The neurodegenerative hypothesis of depression explains decreased hippocampal volumes in depressed patients and changes of neurotrophic support by BDNF, erythropoietin, GDNF, FGF-2, NT3, NGF and growth hormone. In this context, a fast neuroprotective and antidepressant effect has also been observed by ketamine, which acts via the glutamatergic system. Hence, GABA, AMPA, EAAT, NMDA- and metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR1 to mGluR8) have gained interest in depression recently. Alternative, causative or also easy available treatment strategies beyond serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibition might be a major topic of future psychiatric care. In this review, an attempt is made to overview concepts of the disease and search for perspectives on antidepressant treatment strategies beyond approved medications.

/pdf/molecular-mechanisms-of-depression-perspectives-on-new-51kg9254ke.pdf

Molecular Mechanisms of Depression: Perspectives on New Treatment Strategies

https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140-6736(11)60393-0.pdf

Priority actions for the non-communicable disease crisis

/pdf/practice-guideline-for-the-treatment-of-patients-with-major-ofberaz3o1.pdf

PRACTICE GUIDELINE FOR THE Treatment of Patients With Major Depressive Disorder

BACKGROUND: Depression and cardiovascular diseases are both common among elderly. Depression is suspected to be an independent risk factor for the onset of coronary heart disease, yet it is not clear to what extent and if depression also is associated with the onset of other diseases of the circulatory system. AIMS: To estimate the risk of depression as an independent risk factor for various cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and explore the effects of heterogeneity and methodological quality. METHOD: Meta-analyses and meta-regression analyses of longitudinal cohort and case-control studies reporting depression at baseline and CVD outcomes at follow-up. DATA SOURCES: MEDLINE (1966-2005) and PSYCHINFO (1966-2005). RESULTS: Of the 28 studies that met the inclusion criteria, 11 were assesed as high quality studies. Although depressed mood increased the risk for a wide range of CVDs, heterogeneity was substantial in most cases. Only the overall combined risk of depression for the onset of myocardial infarctions (n=8, OR=1.60, 95{\%}CI 1.34-1.92) was homogenous. Clinically diagnosed major depressive disorder was identified as the most important risk factor for developing CVD. CONCLUSIONS: Depression seems to be an independent risk factor for the onset of a wide range of CVDs, although this evidence is related to a high level of heterogeneity

Haan Marten

Papers

Depression and the risk for cardiovascular diseases: systematic review and meta analysis