Purpose – Given the increasing importance of food in tourist activities and destination choice, the purpose of this paper is to reveal a comprehensive measurement scale to evaluate the image of destination food, adopting procedures recommended by previous studies. Design/methodology/approach – The procedure in this study followed two steps: first, item generation including literature review and focus groups; and second, scale purification. Scale purification included exploratory factor analysis to derive an initial factor structure and reliability assessment and confirmatory factor analysis to test the theoretical factor structure and assess validity. Findings – The scale development procedure yielded five dimensions of destination food image: “food safety and quality,” “attractiveness of food,” “health benefits of food,” “food culture,” and “unique culinary arts.” Research limitations/implications – This study contributes to the food-related tourism literature by measuring destination food image based on...

Multi-dimensional scale to measure destination food image: case of Korean food

: Bulgogi (Korean traditional barbecued beef) is the most well-known Korean food to foreigners. There are, however, few studies on its sensory characteristics and consumer acceptability. This study was performed to identify the sensory attributes of Bulgogi samples prepared with different formulation and to compare the consumer acceptability in Korea and the United States. Bulgogi samples were prepared with varying levels of sugar and soy sauce with/without garlic or sesame oil. Descriptive analysis was conducted by 8 trained panelists. In consumer tests, 42 consumers in Seoul, Korea, 53 consumers in Davis (Calif., U.S.A.), and 39 consumers in St. Paul (Minn., U.S.A.) participated. Higher levels of sugar and soy sauce (SSS) significantly increased sweetness, saltiness, MSG taste, and soy sauce odor/flavor compared to the control made with the standard formula (CON). Elimination of sesame oil (ESO) significantly decreased sesame oil odor/flavor and oiliness, but increased green onion flavor. Elimination of garlic (EGC) significantly increased grilled beef odor/flavor, sesame oil odor/flavor, and oiliness, but decreased intensities of all the other attributes except bitterness. The consumers in Korea and the United States rated their overall liking for all samples similarly, preferring SSS to CON, EGC, and ESO. However Korean consumers seemed to detect the differences caused by formulation changes better than the U.S. consumers and these perceived differences seemed to impact the hedonic and the just-about-right ratings. Increase in soy sauce and sugar increased both Korean and the U.S. consumers’ acceptability of Bulgogi, whereas eliminating garlic did not influence the consumer acceptability despite of its significant impact on sensory attributes.



Practical Application:  The food industry is increasingly interested in ethnic foods that satisfy sophisticated appetite of today's consumers. Korean cuisine is recently gaining popularity and perceived as “adventurous and spicy,” appealing to researchers and marketers in the food industry worldwide. However, it is not easy to develop a new product based on ethnic cuisine because nonsensory factors, such as food neophobia and openness to new culture, can evoke adverse responses from the consumers. A systematic sensory approach can guide the product development by identifying both sensory and nonsensory factors affecting consumer acceptability. This study investigated sensory attributes of Bulgogi (Korean traditional barbecued beef), one of the most famous Korean foods, and compared consumer acceptability between Korea and the United States. The outcomes of this study, such as flavor profiles, consumer responses, evaluation procedure, and approaches taken for cross-cultural comparison, will provide the food industries with valuable information that will help to develop effective strategies for commercializing ethnic foods including recipe development for Bulgogi marinades.

Sensory Characteristics and Cross‐Cultural Consumer Acceptability of Bulgogi (Korean Traditional Barbecued Beef)

Bulgogi (Korean-traditional barbequed beef) is one of the most popular Korean traditional foods. China, the world’s most populous country, is a huge market that has the biggest market potential in the world. The purpose of the study was to understand the preference of Chinese consumers for bulgogi products in comparison to that of Korean consumers. Sensory characteristics of bulgogi samples that differed in levels of main marinating ingredients were examined using descriptive analysis and results were connected to hedonic information collected from Chinese (n=72) and Korean (n=76) participants. Bulgogi samples were prepared in ready-to-heat form. Chinese consumers’ overall acceptability was negatively affected by sweet taste, and green onion, black pepper, cooked onion, and sesame flavors. Chinese consumers tended to report that tested bulgogi samples were ‘too sweet’, while Korean consumers thought that sweetness levels were ‘just-right’. The results implied the influence of cultural expectation playing a role in consumer acceptability.

Sensory characteristics and cross-cultural acceptability of Chinese and Korean consumers for ready-to-heat (RTH) type bulgogi (Korean traditional barbecued beef)

This study was conducted to examine the effect of globalization of Korean food according to well-being value perceptionand the foreign visitor Korean food experience. An analysis of variance and a linear regression analysis were conducted toanalyze the hypotheses. The findings are summarized as follows: (1) The most important quality when eating Korean foodwas “taste” (37.3%). (2) The most important well-being value recognition items for Korean food were “kimchi” and“bulgogi”. “Bibimbap is well-being food” (3.82 points) and “Korean food is healthy because it consists mainly of cereals andvegetables” (3.56 points). (3) The subjects highly recognized the “improvement in service quality of Korean restaurants”(3.59 points) with regard to the importance of a globalization strategy for Korean food. (4) High-intake Korean foods were“bibimbap”, “baechookimchi”, “galbigui”, “pajeon”, and “bulgogi”, in that order. In contrast, the intake frequency for“songpeon”, “sikhei”, and “guksu” was very low. (5) The subjects thought that the globalization possibility for Korean foodwas high, as foreigners ingested a lot of baechookimchi. (6) The most effective well-being value recognition item forglobalizing Korean food was “Korean food is nutritious and good for the health” followed by “I have much interest in Koreanwell-being food”. and “Korean food is a well-being food because it contains many fermented and seasonal items”, in thatorder. (7) The most effective food for globalizing Korean food with a high-intake frequency was “baechookimchi', followedby “galbigui”, “guksu”, and “bibimbap”.Key Words: Korean food, well-being value, experience, globalization, foreigner

http://www.koreascience.or.kr:80/article/JAKO201006652483255.pdf

The Effects of Korean Food Globalization on Foreigners’ Perception of Wellbeing Value and Experience with Korean Food

Because the Korean rice cake, Seolgitteok, is mainly prepared with rice flour containing no gluten-protein associated with celiac disease, it can be considered for inclusion in a gluten-free diet. However, Western consumers may be unlikely to enjoy the plain flavor and chewy texture of Seolgitteok. This study aimed to determine both sensory and nonsensory factors that might affect U.S. consumers' acceptability of Seolgitteok. A total of 119 U.S. consumers rated 5 Seolgitteok samples, differentiated by descriptive sensory analysis, with respect to hedonic impression and just-about-right aspects of sensory attributes. Nonsensory factors such as demographic profile, innovativeness, social representation, sensation-seeking, and personality traits were also assessed. Addition levels of brown rice flour (0% to 100%) and sugar (5% to 20%) not only enriched flavor, but also lessened chewiness of Seolgitteok, thereby increasing an overall hedonic impression. Moreover, consumer acceptability of Seolgitteok varied with respect to nonsensory factors. Seolgitteok was more appreciated by males, sensation seekers, and individuals constrained by social desirability than by other groups. In conclusion, these findings demonstrate that U.S. consumers' acceptability of Seolgitteok varies not only by sensory attributes such as rice flavor, sweetness, and chewiness, but also by nonsensory factors such as gender, sensation-seeking characteristics, and personality traits.

Variations in U.S. Consumers' Acceptability of Korean Rice Cake, Seolgitteok, with respect to Sensory Attributes and Nonsensory Factors

To establish a globalization strategy for Korean food, it is important to ascertain foreign consumer's taste preferences and to evaluate their sensory perceptions of Korean food. In concert with previous studies, the most preferred food were Bulgogi and Galbi. However, respondents showed somewhat different preferences for other foods. Chinese and other Asian participants preferred Galbitang and Samgyetang, while Japanese participants preferred Pajeon, Galbitang and Japchae, and Western participants preferred Galbitang, Mandu and Bibimbap. The most preferred condiment was hot pepper paste (the representative condiment of Korea) and the least preferred one was ginger. Hot pepper paste was preferred most by Japanese participants, while Chinese participants tended not to prefer ginger and other Asian participants excepting those from China and Japan disliked vinegar most. Foreign consumers tended to consider Korean food as sweet, salty and very hot. Chinese participants considered Korean food to be 'plain' and 'light and washy' in taste, while Japanese participants considered Korean food to be 'greasy' and 'thick and sticky'. Chinese participants considered typical servings to be inadequate, while Japanese participants considered the servings as excessive.

http://www.koreascience.or.kr:80/article/JAKO201014064135356.pdf

Preference and Perception of Korean Foods of Foreign Consumers by Nationality

The purpose of this study is to examines what is the Korean language education as a foreign language in DPRK and examines the differences between the Korean language education as a foreign language in South Korea in terms of composition and content. For this purpose, in this study, the composition and contents of Korean language education as a foreign language were examined with a focus on studies related to Korean language education as a foreign language published in DPRK. As a result, in terms of content, it was found that Korean language education was composed of ‘Theory of Korean Language Skills Education’, ‘Theory of Knowledge Education of Korean Language’, and ‘Theory of Education on Korean Language Culture’. It can be seen that it is composed of ‘Education Evaluation Theory’, ‘Theory of Korean Language Teaching Materials’, and ‘Theory of Korean Language Teachers’. The study of Korean language education as a foreign language in DPRK is not yet known in detail in South Korea and there are many things that need to be revealed. (Yonsei University) 

Analysis of Korean language education as a foreign language in DPRK

본 연구는 북한 조선어에서 ‘일없다’와 ‘괜찮다’가 어떠한 양상으로 사용되고 있는지 살펴보고 한국어의 ‘일없다’, ‘괜찮다’와는 어떠한 의미적 차이가 있는지 살펴보는 것을 목적으로 한다. 이를 위하여 김일성종합대학교와 김형직사범대학교에서 출간한 조선 어 교재를 활용하여 그 의미와 용례를 살펴보았다. 또한 분류 기준에 따라 ‘일없다’와 ‘괜찮다’를 분류하여 의미적 차이를 분석하였다. 분석 결과 조선어의 ‘일없다’는 ‘걱정하 기/안심시키기’, ‘배려하기/가볍게 여기기’, ‘거절하기’, ‘허락구하기/허락하기’, ‘사과 수 용하기’, ‘긍정적 의견 말하기’의 순서로 의미가 사용되고 있음을 확인할 수 있었으며 ‘괜찮다’는 ‘긍정적 의견 말하기’, ‘거절하기’, ‘걱정하기/안심시키기’, ‘배려하기/가볍게 여기기’, ‘사과 수용하기’, ‘허락구하기/허락하기’의 순서로 사용되고 있음을 확인할 수 있었다. 한국어와 조선어의 비교에서 한국어는 ‘긍정적 의견 말하기’, ‘배려하기/가볍게 여기기’, ‘걱정하기/안심시키기’, ‘허락구하기/허락하기’, ‘거절하기’, ‘사과 수용하기’ 순 으로 의미가 쓰였으나 조선어에서는 ‘걱정하기/안심시키기’, ‘거절하기’, ‘배려하기/가볍 게 여기기’, ‘긍정적 의견 말하기’, ‘허락구하기/허락하기’, ‘사과 수용하기’ 순으로 나타 나 차이점을 보였다. 그뿐만 아니라 조선어의 ‘일없다’는 통사 구조와 의미상 비교적 자 유로운 구성을 보이며 다양한 의미로 사용되어 ‘일없다’와 ‘괜찮다’의 의미가 중첩되고 있는 반면 한국어의 ‘일없다’는 ‘괜찮다’로 대체되어 의미 분화가 이루어지고 있다고 할 수 있다. 

A Comparative Analysis Study of Usage of ‘Ilupda’ in North Korean and ‘Gaedchanda’ in South Korean

This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of an instructional program in Korean language as a foreign language conducted by Kim Il-Sung University. To this end, learners who participated in the ‘Joseon Exchange Scholarship’ program between 2016-2019 were interviewed. In addition, overall course administration was analyzed. The interviews revealed that Kim Il-Sung University has three classes for Korean language education as a foreign language, two classes provide korean language education as a foreign language, and one class provides general korean language education. In addition, Korean laguage education as a foreign language focuses on ‘Conversation’, ‘Reading’, ‘Grammar’, and ‘Writing’. Satisfaction due to the lecture-only teaching method and high learning difficulty. 

A Case Study on the Operation of Korean Education as a Foreign Language at the Kim Il-Sung University

본 연구는 2000년 이후 헤지 표현 관련 연구들의 연구 동향을 살펴보는 것을 목적으로 한다. 이를 위하여 연구 목적별 분석 틀을 설정하고 체계적 문헌고찰 방법을 활용하여 연구물의 경향을 살펴보았다. 구체적으로 연구 동향 분석은 연구 목적과 연구 자료, 연구 방법을 기준으로 나누어 살펴보았으며 일차적으로 연구 목적별 관련 연구의 경향성을 분석한 이후 연구 자료와 연구 방법별로 경향을 재분석하였다. 이러한 과정을 통해 총 70편의 논문을 분석한 결과 헤지 표현의 기능을 분석한 연구가 가장 많았으며 한국어 모어 화자의 헤지 표현 활용 양상 분석 연구, 한국어 모어 화자 및 외국어 모어 화자의 헤지 표현 활용 양상 비교 분석 연구, 한국어교육용 헤지 표현 제시 양상 분석 연구, 한국어 모어 화자와 한국어 학습자의 헤지 표현 활용 양상 비교 분석 연구, 한국어 헤지 표현의 통·번역 양상 대조 분석 연구, 한국어 학습자의 헤지 표현 활용 양상 분석 연구, 한국어 학습자의 헤지 표현 인지 양상 분석 연구, 한국어 헤지 표현 연구 동향 분석 연구 순으로 많이 이루어졌음을 알 수 있었다. 

Hang-Ran Kim

Papers

Preference and Perception of Korean Foods of Foreign Consumers by Nationality

Analysis of Korean language education as a foreign language in DPRK

A Comparative Analysis Study of Usage of ‘Ilupda’ in North Korean and ‘Gaedchanda’ in South Korean

A Case Study on the Operation of Korean Education as a Foreign Language at the Kim Il-Sung University

Systematic Review of Research Trends in Korean Hedge Expressions- Focusing on their Purpose -