We report on solid-state mesoscopic heterojunction solar cells employing nanoparticles (NPs) of methyl ammonium lead iodide (CH3NH3)PbI3 as light harvesters. The perovskite NPs were produced by reaction of methylammonium iodide with PbI2 and deposited onto a submicron-thick mesoscopic TiO2 film, whose pores were infiltrated with the hole-conductor spiro-MeOTAD. Illumination with standard AM-1.5 sunlight generated large photocurrents (JSC) exceeding 17 mA/cm2, an open circuit photovoltage (VOC) of 0.888 V and a fill factor (FF) of 0.62 yielding a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 9.7%, the highest reported to date for such cells. Femto second laser studies combined with photo-induced absorption measurements showed charge separation to proceed via hole injection from the excited (CH3NH3)PbI3 NPs into the spiro-MeOTAD followed by electron transfer to the mesoscopic TiO2 film. The use of a solid hole conductor dramatically improved the device stability compared to (CH3NH3)PbI3 -sensitized liquid junction cells.

/pdf/lead-iodide-perovskite-sensitized-all-solid-state-submicron-3ydqttohnr.pdf

Lead Iodide Perovskite Sensitized All-Solid-State Submicron Thin Film Mesoscopic Solar Cell with Efficiency Exceeding 9%

The need to develop inexpensive renewable energy sources stimulates scientific research for efficient, low-cost photovoltaic devices.1 The organic, polymer-based photovoltaic elements have introduced at least the potential of obtaining cheap and easy methods to produce energy from light.2 The possibility of chemically manipulating the material properties of polymers (plastics) combined with a variety of easy and cheap processing techniques has made polymer-based materials present in almost every aspect of modern society.3 Organic semiconductors have several advantages: (a) lowcost synthesis, and (b) easy manufacture of thin film devices by vacuum evaporation/sublimation or solution cast or printing technologies. Furthermore, organic semiconductor thin films may show high absorption coefficients4 exceeding 105 cm-1, which makes them good chromophores for optoelectronic applications. The electronic band gap of organic semiconductors can be engineered by chemical synthesis for simple color changing of light emitting diodes (LEDs).5 Charge carrier mobilities as high as 10 cm2/V‚s6 made them competitive with amorphous silicon.7 This review is organized as follows. In the first part, we will give a general introduction to the materials, production techniques, working principles, critical parameters, and stability of the organic solar cells. In the second part, we will focus on conjugated polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells, mainly on polyphenylenevinylene (PPV) derivatives/(1-(3-methoxycarbonyl) propyl-1-phenyl[6,6]C61) (PCBM) fullerene derivatives and poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)/PCBM systems. In the third part, we will discuss the alternative approaches such as polymer/polymer solar cells and organic/inorganic hybrid solar cells. In the fourth part, we will suggest possible routes for further improvements and finish with some conclusions. The different papers mentioned in the text have been chosen for didactical purposes and cannot reflect the chronology of the research field nor have a claim of completeness. The further interested reader is referred to the vast amount of quality papers published in this field during the past decade.

Conjugated polymer-based organic solar cells

Fossil fuel alternatives, such as solar energy, are moving to the forefront in a variety of research fields. Polymer-based organic photovoltaic systems hold the promise for a cost-effective, lightweight solar energy conversion platform, which could benefit from simple solution processing of the active layer. The function of such excitonic solar cells is based on photoinduced electron transfer from a donor to an acceptor. Fullerenes have become the ubiquitous acceptors because of their high electron affinity and ability to transport charge effectively. The most effective solar cells have been made from bicontinuous polymer–fullerene composites, or so-called bulk heterojunctions. The best solar cells currently achieve an efficiency of about 5 %, thus significant advances in the fundamental understanding of the complex interplay between the active layer morphology and electronic properties are required if this technology is to find viable application.

Polymer–Fullerene Composite Solar Cells

Solution-processed bulk-heterojunction solar cells have gained serious attention during the last few years and are becoming established as one of the future photovoltaic technologies for low-cost power production. This article reviews the highlights of the last few years, and summarizes today's state-of-the-art performance. An outlook is given on relevant future materials and technologies that have the potential to guide this young photovoltaic technology towards the magic 10% regime. A cost model supplements the technical discussions, with practical aspects any photovoltaic technology needs to fulfil, and answers to the question as to whether low module costs can compensate lower lifetimes and performances.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/adma.200801283

Polymer‐Fullerene Bulk‐Heterojunction Solar Cells

Recent Advances in Bulk Heterojunction Polymer Solar Cells

The effect of controlled thermal annealing on charge transport and photogeneration in bulk-heterojunction solar cells made from blend films of regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and methanofullerene (PCBM) has been studied. With respect to the charge transport, it is demonstrated that the electron mobility dominates the transport of the cell, varying from 10 –8 m 2 V –1 s –1 in as-cast devices to ≈ 3× 10 –7 m 2 V –1 s –1 after thermal annealing. The hole mobility in the P3HT phase of the blend is dramatically affected by thermal annealing. It increases by more than three orders of magnitude, to reach a value of up to ≈ 2× 10 –8 m 2 V –1 s –1 after the annealing process, as a result of an improved crystallinity of the film. Moreover, upon annealing the absorption spectrum of P3HT:PCBM blends undergo a strong red-shift, improving the spectral overlap with solar emission, which results in an increase of more than 60 % in the rate of charge-carrier generation. Subsequently, the experimental electron and hole mobilities are used to study the photocurrent generation in P3HT:PCBM devices as a function of annealing temperature. The results indicate that the most important factor leading to a strong enhancement of the efficiency, compared with non-annealed devices, is the increase of the hole mobility in the P3HT phase of the blend. Furthermore, numerical simulations indicate that under short-circuit conditions the dissociation efficiency of bound electron–hole pairs at the donor/acceptor interface is close to 90 %, which explains the large quantum efficiencies measured in P3HT:PCBM blends.

/pdf/charge-transport-and-photocurrent-generation-in-poly-3-1trn8v9x8e.pdf

Charge transport and photocurrent generation in poly (3-hexylthiophene): Methanofullerene bulk-heterojunction solar cells

A typical feature of polymer/fullerene based solar cells is that the current density under short-circuit conditions (Jsc) does not scale exactly linearly with light intensity (I). Instead, a power law relationship is found given by Jsc∝Iα, where α ranges from 0.85 to 1. In a number of reports this deviation from unity is speculated to arise from the occurrence of bimolecular recombination. We demonstrate that the dependence of the photocurrent in bulk heterojunction solar cells is governed by the build-up of space-charge in the device as a consequence of a difference in electron- and hole mobility. We have verified this for an experimental model system in which the mobility difference can be tuned from one to three orders of magnitude by changing the annealing treatment.

/pdf/origin-of-the-light-intensity-dependence-of-the-short-40pyas284u.pdf

Origin of the light intensity dependence of the short-circuit current of polymer/fullerene solar cells

The origin of the enhanced performance of bulk heterojunction solar cells based on slowly dried films of poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and [6,6]-phenyl C61-butyric acid methyl ester is investigated, combining charge transport measurements with numerical device simulations. Slow drying leads to a 33-fold enhancement of the hole mobility up to 5.0×10−7m2V−1s−1 in the P3HT phase of the blend, thereby balancing the transport of electrons and holes in the blend. The resulting reduction of space-charge accumulation enables the use of thick films (∼300nm), absorbing most of the incoming photons, without losses in the fill factor and short-circuit current of the device.

/pdf/origin-of-the-enhanced-performance-in-poly-3-hexylthiophene-5eph6gqppu.pdf

Origin of the enhanced performance in poly"3-hexylthiophene…: †6,6‡-phenyl C 61 -butyric acid methyl ester solar cells upon slow drying of the active layer

The open-circuit voltage (Voc) of polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells is investigated as a function of light intensity
for different temperatures. The observed photogenerated current and V oc are at variance with classical p-n junctionbased
models. The influence of light intensity and recombination strength on V oc is consistently explained by a model
based on the notion that the quasi-Fermi levels are constant throughout the device, including both drift and diffusion of
charge carriers. The light intensity dependence of the short-circuit current density (J sc) is also addressed. A typical feature
of polymer/fullerene based solar cells is that Jsc does not scale exactly linearly with light intensity (I). Instead, a power
law relationship is found given by Jsc∝ Iα, where α ranges from 0.9 to 1. In a number of reports this deviation from unity
is attributed to the occurrence of bimolecular recombination. We demonstrate that the dependence of the photocurrent in
bulk heterojunction solar cells is governed by the build-up of space charge in the device. The occurrence of space-charge
stems from the difference in charge carrier mobility of electrons and holes. In blends of poly(3-hexylthiophene) and 6,6-
phenyl C61-butyric acid methyl ester this mobility difference can be tuned in between one and three orders of magnitude,
depending on the annealing conditions. This allows us to experimentally verify the relation between space charge build-up
and intensity dependence of Jsc. Model calculations confirm that bimolecular recombination leads only to a typical loss
of 1% of all free charge carriers at Jsc for these devices. Therefore, bimolecular recombination plays only a minor role as
compared to the effect of space charge in the intensity dependence of J sc.

Light intensity dependence of open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current of polymer/fullerene solar cells

Hot Universe Baryon Surveyor (HUBS) is a proposed Chinese space mission to search for the so-called “missing baryons”. HUBS will focus on soft X-ray detection. The central part of the HUBS telescope is a soft X-ray spectrometer that uses a large transition-edge sensors array to detect the photon emission from a warm-hot intergalactic medium. The detector array comprises more than 3600 pixels. To read such a large number of pixels, a multiplexed readout technique is obligatory. We aim to develop a time-division multiplexed (TDM) readout system for HUBS. We choose TDM because it is the most mature and common one among various multiplexed readout techniques. We started by developing a proto-type TDM system that uses a single-stage SQUID readout. The basic multiplexing unit is composed of a SQUID series array (SSA) in parallel with a SQUID-based superconducting/normal conducting switch (SN switch). The SSA is composed of 16 individual SQUID cell that adopts a 1st order serial gradiometer design. The switch is also made of SQUID cells connected in series. The SQUID cell for a switch can comprise two Josephson junctions (JJs) like a usual DC-SQUID. It can also take the form of a Zappe interferometer that consists of four JJs. We will present the design and the simulation results of the sensor SQUID array and the SN switches.

Hangxing Xie

Papers

Charge transport and photocurrent generation in poly (3-hexylthiophene): Methanofullerene bulk-heterojunction solar cells

Origin of the light intensity dependence of the short-circuit current of polymer/fullerene solar cells

Origin of the enhanced performance in poly"3-hexylthiophene…: †6,6‡-phenyl C 61 -butyric acid methyl ester solar cells upon slow drying of the active layer

Light intensity dependence of open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current of polymer/fullerene solar cells

Development of sensor SQUID and Zappe interferometer switch for HUBS