자연주의적 탐구조사(Naturalistic Inquiry)

Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques

W. Wilson's (1967) review of the area of subjective well-being (SWB) advanced several conclusions regarding those who report high levels of "happiness". A number of his conclusions have been overturned: youth and modest aspirations no longer are seen as prerequisites of SWB. E. Diener's (1984) review placed greater emphasis on theories that stressed psychological factors. In the current article, the authors review current evidence for Wilson's conclusions and discuss modern theories of SWB that stress dispositional influences, adaptation, goals, and coping strategies. The next steps in the evolution of the field are to comprehend the interaction of psychological factors with life circumstances in producing SWB, to understand the causal pathways leading to happiness, understand the processes underlying adaptation to events, and develop theories that explain why certain variables differentially influence the different components of SWV (life satisfaction, pleasant affect, and unpleasant affect).

Subjective Well-Being: Three Decades of Progress

W Wilson's (1967) review of the area of subjective well-being (SWB) advanced several conclusions regarding those who report high levels of "happiness" A number of his conclusions have been overturned: youth and modest aspirations no longer are seen as prerequisites of SWB E Diener's (1984) review placed greater emphasis on theories that stressed psychological factors In the current article, the authors review current evidence for Wilson's conclusions and discuss modern theories of SWB that stress dispositional influences, adaptation, goals, and coping strategies The next steps in the evolution of the field are to comprehend the interaction of psychological factors with life circumstances in producing SWB, to understand the causal pathways leading to happiness, understand the processes underlying adaptation to events, and develop theories that explain why certain variables differentially influence the different components of SWB (life satisfaction, pleasant affect, and unpleasant affect) In 1967, Warner Wilson presented a broad review of subjective well-being (SWB) research entitled, "Correlates of Avowed Happiness" Based on the limited data available at that time, Wilson concluded that the happy person is a "young, healthy, welleducated, well-paid, extroverted, optimistic, worry-free, religious, married person with high self-esteem, job morale, modest aspirations, of either sex and of a wide range of intelligence" (p 294) In the three decades since Wilson's review, investigations into SWB have evolved Although researchers now know a great deal more about the correlates of SWB, they are less interested in simply describing the demographic characteristics that correlate with it Instead, they focus their effort on understanding the processes that underlie happiness This trend represents a greater recognition of the central role played by people's goals, coping efforts, and dispositions In this article, we review research on several major theoretical approaches to well-being and then indicate how these theories clarify the findings on demographic correlates of SWB Throughout the review we suggest four directions that researchers should pursue in the decades ahead These are by no means the only questions left to answer, but we believe they are the most interesting issues left to resolve First, the causal direction of the correlates of happiness must be examined through more sophisticated methodologies Although the causal priority of demographic factors such as marriage and income is intuitively appealing, it is by no means certain Second, researchers must focus greater attention on the interaction between internal factors (such as personality traits) and external circumstances As we shall see, demographic factors have surprisingly small effects on SWB, but these effects may depend on the personalities of those individuals being studied Thus, future research must take Person X Situation interactions into account Third, researchers must strive to understand the processes underlying adaptation Considerable adaptation to both good and bad circumstances often occurs, yet the processes responsible for these effects are poorly understood Research that examines how habituation, coping strategies, and changing goals influence adaptation will shed much light on the processes responsible for SWB Finally, theories must be refined to make specific predictions about how input variables differentially influence the components of SWB In the past, many researchers have treated SWB as a monolithic entity, but it is now clear that there are separable components that exhibit unique patterns of relations with different variables In each section of this article we discuss progress and opportunities in these four areas

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Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress

Resilience may be viewed as a measure of stress coping ability and, as such, could be an important target of treatment in anxiety, depression, and stress reactions. We describe a new rating scale to assess resilience. The Connor-Davidson Resilience scale (CD-RISC) comprises of 25 items, each rated on a 5-point scale (0–4), with higher scores reflecting greater resilience. The scale was administered to subjects in the following groups: community sample, primary care outpatients, general psychiatric outpatients, clinical trial of generalized anxiety disorder, and two clinical trials of PTSD. The reliability, validity, and factor analytic structure of the scale were evaluated, and reference scores for study samples were calculated. Sensitivity to treatment effects was examined in subjects from the PTSD clinical trials. The scale demonstrated good psychometric properties and factor analysis yielded five factors. A repeated measures ANOVA showed that an increase in CD-RISC score was associated with greater improvement during treatment. Improvement in CD-RISC score was noted in proportion to overall clinical global improvement, with greatest increase noted in subjects with the highest global improvement and deterioration in CD-RISC score in those with minimal or no global improvement. The CDRISC has sound psychometric properties and distinguishes between those with greater and lesser resilience. The scale demonstrates that resilience is modifiable and can improve with treatment, with greater improvement corresponding to higher levels of global improvement. Depression and Anxiety 18:76–82, 2003. & 2003 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

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Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale (CD‐RISC)

This study describes the development and initial psychometric evaluation of the 25-item Resilience Scale (RS) in a sample of 810 community-dwelling older adults. Principal components factor analysis of the RS was conducted followed by oblimin rotation indicating that the factor structure represented two factors (Personal Competence and Acceptance of Self and Life). Positive correlations with adaptational outcomes (physical health, morale, and life satisfaction) and a negative correlation with depression supported concurrent validity of the RS. The results of this study support the internal consistency reliability and concurrent validity of the RS as an instrument to measure resilience.

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Development and psychometric evaluation of the Resilience Scale

This qualitative study was designed to identify and describe characteristics of successfully adjusted older women. The participants reported a recent major loss and were considered successfully adjusted as evidenced by social involvement in a senior center, a mid level to high level of morale and self-report. Using a grounded theory approach, five underlying themes were identified: equanimity, self-reliance, existential aloneness, perseverance and meaningfulness. These themes are thought to constitute resilience. Lateral grounding of the concept resilience is accomplished by comparison with philosophical writings of Frankl, Bettelheim, Frank, May and von Witzleben. Resilience is important in late life as a component of successful psychosocial adjustment.

Resilience among older women.

The Screen for Caregiver Burden (SCB) is a measure designed to identify distressing caregiver experiences rapidly. The 25-item SCB, created specifically for spouse caregivers of Alzheimer's care recipients, provides scores for objective burden (OB; number of potentially negative experiences) and subjective burden (SB; appraised distress in response to the experiences). Three separate studies (total N = 191) demonstrate the internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and validity (content, divergent, convergent, and criterion) of the scales. Finally, evidence suggests that changes in OB and SB over time are explained by changes in care-recipient functioning and caregiver distress.

The Screen for Caregiver Burden

This study used the following model of distress: Distress = [Exposure to Stress + Vulnerability]/[Psychological and Social Resources]. The constructs in the model were operationalized as (a) distress in response to caregiver experiences (burden); (b) exposure to stress (care recipient functional impairment in activities of daily living [ADLs]); (c) vulnerability (caregiver health problems, anger, and anxiety); and (d) resources (coping, outlook on life, and social supports). Long-term burden (15-18 months after entry) was predicted by several baseline variables: burden, care recipient ADLs, vulnerability and resource variables, and specific interactions of burden, ADLs, vulnerability, and resource variables. The interactions showed that caregivers with high vulnerability and low resources had higher burden scores than caregivers with other combinations of these variables.

https://psycnet.apa.org/journals/pag/6/3/392.pdf

Heather M. Young

Papers

Development and psychometric evaluation of the Resilience Scale

Resilience among older women.

The Screen for Caregiver Burden

Predictors of Burden in Spouse Caregivers of Individuals With Alzheimer's Disease

GDNF is a chemoattractant for enteric neural cells