Evaluation of the human genome suggests that all members of the connexin family of gap-junction proteins have now been successfully identified. This large and diverse family of proteins facilitates a number of vital cellular functions coupled with their roles, which range from the intercellular propagation of electrical signals to the selective intercellular passage of small regulatory molecules. Importantly, the extent of gap-junctional intercellular communication is under the direct control of regulatory events associated with channel assembly and turnover, as the vast majority of connexins have remarkably short half-lives of only a few hours. Since most cell types express multiple members of the connexin family, compensatory mechanisms exist to salvage tissue function in cases when one connexin is mutated or lost. However, numerous studies of the last decade have revealed that mutations in connexin genes can also lead to severe and debilitating diseases. In many cases, single point mutations lead to dramatic effects on connexin trafficking, assembly and channel function. This review will assess the current understanding of wild-type and selected disease-linked mutant connexin transport through the secretory pathway, gap-junction assembly at the cell surface, internalization and degradation.

Life cycle of connexins in health and disease

Morphological evidence shows that osteocytes, bone cells that exist enclosed within bone matrix, are connected to one another and to surface osteoblasts via gap junctions; however, it is unknown whether these gap junctions are functional. Using a newly established murine osteocytic cell line MLO-Y4, we have examined functional gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) between osteocytic cells and between osteocytic and osteoblastic cells. In our hands, MLO-Y4 cells express phenotypic characteristics of osteocytic cells including a stellate morphology, low alkaline phosphatase activity, and increased osteocalcin messenger RNA (mRNA) compared with osteoblastic cells. Northern and Western blot analysis revealed that MLO-Y4 cells express abundant connexin 43 (Cx43) mRNA and protein, respectively. Lucifer yellow dye transferred from injected to adjacent cells suggesting that osteocytic cells were functionally coupled via gap junctions. Functional GJIC between osteocytic and osteoblastic (MC3T3-E1) cells was determined by monitoring the passage of calcein dye between the two cell types using a double labeling technique. The ability of bone cells to communicate a mechanical signal was assessed by mechanically deforming the cell membrane of single MLO-Y4 cells, cocultured with MC3T3-E1 cells. Deformation induced calcium signals in MLO-Y4 cells and those elicited in neighboring MC3T3-E1 cells were monitored with the calcium sensitive dye Fura-2. Our results suggest that osteocytic MLO-Y4 cells express functional gap junctions most likely composed of Cx43. Furthermore, osteocytic and osteoblastic cells are functionally coupled to one another via gap junctions as shown by the ability of calcein to pass between cells and the ability of cells to communicate a mechanically induced calcium response.

Functional Gap Junctions Between Osteocytic and Osteoblastic Cells

Gap junctions and biophysical regulation of bone cell differentiation.

The control and maintenance of vascular tone is due to a balance between vasoconstrictor and vasodilator pathways. Vasomotor responses to neural, metabolic and physical factors vary between vessels in different vascular beds, as well as along the same bed, particularly as vessels become smaller. These differences result from variation in the composition of neurotransmitters released by perivascular nerves, variation in the array and activation of receptor subtypes expressed in different vascular beds and variation in the signal transduction pathways activated in either the vascular smooth muscle or endothelial cells. As the study of vasomotor responses often requires pre-existing tone, some of the reported heterogeneity in the relative contributions of different vasodilator mechanisms may be compounded by different experimental conditions. Biochemical variations, such as the expression of ion channels, connexin subtypes and other important components of second messenger cascades, have been documented in the smooth muscle and endothelial cells in different parts of the body. Anatomical variations, in the presence and prevalence of gap junctions between smooth muscle cells, between endothelial cells and at myoendothelial gap junctions, between the two cell layers, have also been described. These factors will contribute further to the heterogeneity in local and conducted responses.

Heterogeneous control of blood flow amongst different vascular beds.

Alveolar epithelial transport. Basic science to clinical medicine.

We present an activity, involving a parked car, for estimating the surface temperature of the Sun. The activity entails both outdoor quantitative observations and theoretical analysis, and yields a result for the surface temperature of the Sun within 12% of the accepted value. It can be used as an independent study project to spark students’ interest and facilitate learning.

Heidi L. Gilley

Papers

Finding the surface temperature of the Sun using a parked car