Les auteurs ont passe en revue et complete diverses theories de la causalite proposees par des psychologues, des philosophes, des statisticiens et d'autres auteurs, cherchant a expliquer les processus qui sous-tendent le jugement de causalite

Judging probable cause.

Audio-tutorial science lessons were provided to 191 first and second grade children (instructed), and interviews were conducted periodically to assess changes in science concept under standing from grades one through twelve. A similar sample (n = 48) not receiving audio-tutorial lessons in grades one and two (uninstructed) was also interviewed periodically from grades one through twelve. Instructed students showed substantially more valid concept understandings and fewer invalid concepts (misconceptions) than uninstructed students in grades two, seven, ten, and twelve. Concept maps prepared from interview transcripts showed wide variation in knowledge for both groups, and concept maps scored using a scoring algorithm also showed significant differences favoring instructed students. The data show the lasting impact of early instruction in science and the value of concept maps as a representational tool for cognitive developmental changes.

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A Twelve-Year Longitudinal Study of Science Concept Learning

The paper describes the development of the Test of Logical Thinking (TOLT) to measure five modes of formal reasoning: controlling variables, proportional reasoning, combinatorial reasoning, probabi...

The Development and Validation of a Group Test of Logical Thinking

This paper presents a review of the research on proportional reasoning. Methodologies used in proportional reasoning studies are presented first. The discussion is then organized around the following topics: strategies use to solve proportion problems, including erroneous strategies; factors that influence performance on proportion problems, both task-related and subject-related; training studies. The discussion is accompanied by suggestions for educational and research applications.

Proportional Reasoning: A Review of the Literature.

A central purpose of education is to improve students' reasoning abilities. The present review examines research in developmental psychology and science education that has attempted to assess the validity of Piaget's theory of formal thought and its relation to educational practice. Should a central objective of schools be to help students become formal thinkers? To answer this question research has focused on the following subordinate questions: (1) What role does biological maturation play in the development of formal reasoning? (2) Are Piaget's formal tasks reliable and valid? (3) Does formal reasoning constitute a unified and general mode of intellectual functioning? (4) How does the presence or absence of formal reasoning affect school achievement? (5) Can formal reasoning be taught? (6) What is the structural or functional nature of advanced reasoning? The general conclusion drawn is that although Piaget's work and that which has sprung from it leaves a number of unresolved theoretical and methodological problems, it provides an important background from which to make substantial progress toward a most significant educational objective.



All our dignity lies in thought. By thought we must elevate ourselves, not by space and time which we can not fill. Let us endeavor then to think well; therein lies the principle of morality. Blaise Pascal 1623-1662.

A Review of Research on Formal Reasoning and Science Teaching.

The acquisition of propositional logic and formal operational schemata during the secondary school years

Intellectual Development Beyond Elementary School VI: Correlational Reasoning

Intellectual Development Beyond Elementary School VIII: Proportional, Probabilistic, and Correlational Reasoning

Equation solving is a necessary prerequisite to the solution of many mathematical problems. Failure to solve equations correctly is common among many high school and early college students. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relation between the developmental levels of students and their performance on equation solving when different reversible processes are applied. In order to study this relationship, a conceptual link between intellectual development and reversibility of thought in equation solving will first be established. To solve an equation means to find all those numbers that satisfy the equation. Reversibility of thought is implicit in equation solving, and different forms of reversibility may be applied to solve a given equation. According to Piaget's theory of intellectual development, two different forms of reversibility-negations (inversions) and reciprocities (compensations)-are applicable on the level of concrete operations. The coordination between these two forms of reversibility within the same system was defined to be a trait of formal operations (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). Negation, or inversion, means reversing an action by "undoing" it, and reciprocity, or compensation, means reversing an action by cancelling for its effects. For example, given a balance at equilibrium when an object is placed on one of its sides, disequilibrium occurs. Equilibrium is restored by either removing the object (inverting the action) or by compensating for its effect by placing an equivalent weight on the other side of the balance. Inverse transformations are applicable within the class groupings of concrete operations, whereas compensatory transformations are applicable within the relational groupings of concrete operations. Although both inversions and compensations are applied on concrete operations, the application of inversions is expected to be developmentally simpler than the application of compensations, since the class groupings of concrete operations develop before the relational groupings (Flavell, 1963).

Intellectual development and reversibility of thought in equation solving

investigated. The purpose of this study was (a) to identify potential sources of individual and group differences affecting formal thought, and (b) to examine the relationship between the performance of college students on a specific formal operational task and their performance on other cognitive measures identified as possible sources of individual differences. The application of an individual difference approach to Piagetian-based tasks describes the work of Pascual-Leone (1969; Note 1). He identified the cognitive style of field dependence/independence as one dimension of importance to formal operational performance. His analysis shows that this cognitive style dimension affects the outcome of a situation where two strategies are in conflict: One strategy had been used in the past, or is relatively simple; and the other strategy must be constructed, or is relatively complex. In both cases, the simple strategy is considered first, but only the field-independent subject "drops" this to consider or to construct the alternative strategy. Hence, in the situation where the two strategies lead to different solutions, the field-independent subject will "solve" the problem in one way and the field-dependent in another. This analysis of field dependence/independence has also been proposed by Witkin and Goodenough (Note 2) in their revision of cognitive style theory. Accordingly, in a heterogeneous population, a high positive correlation between field independence and formal operational performance is to be expected.

Helen Adi

Papers

The acquisition of propositional logic and formal operational schemata during the secondary school years

Intellectual Development Beyond Elementary School VI: Correlational Reasoning

Intellectual Development Beyond Elementary School VIII: Proportional, Probabilistic, and Correlational Reasoning

Intellectual development and reversibility of thought in equation solving

Individual Differences and Formal Operational Performance of College Students