抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

https://staff.blog.ui.ac.id/hsuryadi/files/2012/02/ROS_RNS.pdf

Free radicals and antioxidants in normal physiological functions and human disease

The Role of Superoxide Anion in the Autoxidation of Epinephrine and a Simple Assay for Superoxide Dismutase

The production of ROS (reactive oxygen species) by mammalian mitochondria is important because it underlies oxidative damage in many pathologies and contributes to retrograde redox signalling from the organelle to the cytosol and nucleus. Superoxide (O2•−) is the proximal mitochondrial ROS, and in the present review I outline the principles that govern O2•− production within the matrix of mammalian mitochondria. The flux of O2•− is related to the concentration of potential electron donors, the local concentration of O2 and the second-order rate constants for the reactions between them. Two modes of operation by isolated mitochondria result in significant O2•− production, predominantly from complex I: (i) when the mitochondria are not making ATP and consequently have a high Δp (protonmotive force) and a reduced CoQ (coenzyme Q) pool; and (ii) when there is a high NADH/NAD+ ratio in the mitochondrial matrix. For mitochondria that are actively making ATP, and consequently have a lower Δp and NADH/NAD+ ratio, the extent of O2•− production is far lower. The generation of O2•− within the mitochondrial matrix depends critically on Δp, the NADH/NAD+ and CoQH2/CoQ ratios and the local O2 concentration, which are all highly variable and difficult to measure in vivo. Consequently, it is not possible to estimate O2•− generation by mitochondria in vivo from O2•−-production rates by isolated mitochondria, and such extrapolations in the literature are misleading. Even so, the description outlined here facilitates the understanding of factors that favour mitochondrial ROS production. There is a clear need to develop better methods to measure mitochondrial O2•− and H2O2 formation in vivo, as uncertainty about these values hampers studies on the role of mitochondrial ROS in pathological oxidative damage and redox signalling.

/pdf/how-mitochondria-produce-reactive-oxygen-species-4spvs9r9mw.pdf

How mitochondria produce reactive oxygen species.

Free radicals, metals and antioxidants in oxidative stress-induced cancer

Age related alteration of the antioxidant/ inflammatory axis in human lung epithelial cells in response to nanoparticle challenge

Thioredoxin and glutaredoxin systems: Structure and function: Arne Holmgren, Carl-Ivar Brändén, Hans Jörnvall, and Britt-Marie Sjöberg Raven Press, New York, price: $59.50

Henry Jay Forman

Papers

Age related alteration of the antioxidant/ inflammatory axis in human lung epithelial cells in response to nanoparticle challenge

Thioredoxin and glutaredoxin systems: Structure and function: Arne Holmgren, Carl-Ivar Brändén, Hans Jörnvall, and Britt-Marie Sjöberg Raven Press, New York, price: $59.50

Lipid Peroxidation and Age-Related Neurodegenerative Disorders

Differential paraquat (PO) accumulation and redox kinetics in rat lung cells

The effect of cyanate, carbamyl phosphate and growth on the glutamine dependent carbamyl phosphate synthetase from rat spleen and brain.