Objectives To quantify the benefits and harms of general health checks in adults with an emphasis on patient-relevant outcomes such as morbidity and mortality rather than on surrogate outcomes. Design Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. For mortality, we analysed the results with random effects meta-analysis, and for other outcomes we did a qualitative synthesis as meta-analysis was not feasible. Data sources Medline, EMBASE, Healthstar, Cochrane Library, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, CINAHL, EPOC register, ClinicalTrials.gov, and WHO ICTRP, supplemented by manual searches of reference lists of included studies, citation tracking (Web of Knowledge), and contacts with trialists. Selection criteria Randomised trials comparing health checks with no health checks in adult populations unselected for disease or risk factors. Health checks defined as screening general populations for more than one disease or risk factor in more than one organ system. We did not include geriatric trials. Data extraction Two observers independently assessed eligibility, extracted data, and assessed the risk of bias. We contacted authors for additional outcomes or trial details when necessary. Results We identified 16 trials, 14 of which had available outcome data (182 880 participants). Nine trials provided data on total mortality (11 940 deaths), and they gave a risk ratio of 0.99 (95% confidence interval 0.95 to 1.03). Eight trials provided data on cardiovascular mortality (4567 deaths), risk ratio 1.03 (0.91 to 1.17), and eight on cancer mortality (3663 deaths), risk ratio 1.01 (0.92 to 1.12). Subgroup and sensitivity analyses did not alter these findings. We did not find beneficial effects of general health checks on morbidity, hospitalisation, disability, worry, additional physician visits, or absence from work, but not all trials reported on these outcomes. One trial found that health checks led to a 20% increase in the total number of new diagnoses per participant over six years compared with the control group and an increased number of people with self reported chronic conditions, and one trial found an increased prevalence of hypertension and hypercholesterolaemia. Two out of four trials found an increased use of antihypertensives. Two out of four trials found small beneficial effects on self reported health, which could be due to bias. Conclusions General health checks did not reduce morbidity or mortality, neither overall nor for cardiovascular or cancer causes, although they increased the number of new diagnoses. Important harmful outcomes were often not studied or reported. Systematic review registration Cochrane Library, doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009009.

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General health checks in adults for reducing morbidity and mortality from disease: Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis

General health checks involve multiple tests in a person who does not feel ill with the purpose of finding disease early, preventing disease from developing, or providing reassurance. Health checks are a common element of health care in some countries. To many people health checks intuitively make sense, but experience from screening programmes for individual diseases have shown that the benefits may be smaller than expected and the harms greater. One possible harm from health checks is the diagnosis and treatment of conditions that were not destined to cause symptoms or death. Their diagnosis will, therefore, be superfluous and carry the risk of unnecessary treatment.
The authors identified 16 randomised trials which had compared a group of adults offered general health checks to a group not offered health checks. Results were available from 14 trials, including 182,880 participants. Nine trials studied the risk of death and included 155,899 participants and 11,940 deaths. There was no effect on the risk of death, or on the risk of death due to cardiovascular diseases or cancer. We did not find an effect on the risk of illness but one trial found an increased number of people identified with high blood pressure and high cholesterol, and one trial found an increased number with chronic diseases. One trial reported the total number of new diagnoses per participant and found a 20% increase over six years compared to the control group. No trials compared the total number of new prescriptions but two out of four trials found an increased number of people using drugs for high blood pressure. Two out of four trials found that health checks made people feel somewhat healthier, but this result is not reliable. They did not find that health checks had an effect on the number of admissions to hospital, disability, worry, the number of referrals to specialists, additional visits to the physician, or absence from work, but most of these outcomes were poorly studied. None of the trials reported on the number of follow-up tests after positive screening results, or the amount of surgery used.
One reason for the apparent lack of effect may be that primary care physicians already identify and intervene when they suspect a patient to be at high risk of developing disease when they see them for other reasons. Also, those at high risk of developing disease may not attend general health checks when invited. Most of the trials were old, which makes the results less applicable to today's settings because the treatments used for conditions and risk factors have changed.
With the large number of participants and deaths included, the long follow-up periods used in the trials, and considering that death from cardiovascular diseases and cancer were not reduced, general health checks are unlikely to be beneficial.

/pdf/general-health-checks-in-adults-for-reducing-morbidity-and-1kp7ywp3xe.pdf

General health checks in adults for reducing morbidity and mortality from disease

Objectives: To describe implementation of a new national preventive programme to reduce cardiovascular morbidity. 

Design: Observational study over 4 years (April 2009—March 2013). 

Setting: 655 general practices across England from the QResearch database. 

Participants: Eligible adults aged 40–74 years including attendees at a National Health Service (NHS) Health Check. 

Intervention: NHS Health Check: routine structured cardiovascular check with support for behavioural change and in those at highest risk, treatment of risk factors and newly identified comorbidity. 

Results: Of 1.68 million people eligible for an NHS Health Check, 214 295 attended in the period 2009–12. Attendance quadrupled as the programme progressed; 5.8% in 2010 to 30.1% in 2012. Attendance was relatively higher among older people, of whom 19.6% of those eligible at age 60–74 years attended and 9.0% at age 40–59 years. Attendance by population groups at higher cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk, such as the more socially disadvantaged 14.9%, was higher than that of the more affluent 12.3%. Among attendees 7844 new cases of hypertension (38/1000 Checks), 1934 new cases of type 2 diabetes (9/1000 Checks) and 807 new cases of chronic kidney disease (4/1000 Checks) were identified. Of the 27 624 people found to be at high CVD risk (20% or more 10-year risk) when attending an NHS Health Check, 19.3% (5325) were newly prescribed statins and 8.8% (2438) were newly prescribed antihypertensive therapy. 

Conclusions: NHS Health Check coverage was lower than expected but showed year-on-year improvement. Newly identified comorbidities were an important feature of the NHS Health Checks. Statin treatment at national scale for 1 in 5 attendees at highest CVD risk is likely to have contributed to important reductions in their CVD events.

https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/bmjopen/6/1/e008840.full.pdf

The NHS Health Check in England: an evaluation of the first 4 years

In this paper we explore ‘exergaming’ in schools, the latest trend influencing the physical education (PE) curriculum. Throughout the paper we investigate the various proponents of exergaming including the gaming industry, academic researchers and PE teachers. Our inquiry takes a closer look at exergaming as a pedagogical trend and describes exergaming's potential implications for the profession of PE as well as for individual students. Our methodological approach includes review and analysis of popular, scholarly and curricular texts related to the use of exergaming in schools. The analysis underscores the political nature of the curriculum and, in so doing, invites a closer look at this curricular trend by examining whose interests are served through the circulation of crisis discourses surrounding youth (ill)health and the use of these crisis discourses to justify the placement of commercial products in schools.

"Exergaming," Corporate Interests and the Crisis Discourse of Childhood Obesity.

OBJECTIVES--The objective of this study was to investigate the mortality of electrical utility workers exposed to electric and magnetic fields. METHODS--A historical cohort mortality study was carried out on 21,744 workers who were employed in an electrical company in the province of Quebec between 1970 and 1988. The last job held by each study subject was coded. A job exposure matrix (JEM) was used to estimate the exposure to 60 Hz electric and magnetic fields, and pulsed electromagnetic fields (as recorded by the PEMF (POSITRON) meter) in this job. Standardised mortality ratios (SMRs) were calculated relative to Quebec men. Because the exposure was exclusively among blue collar workers, the remainder of the analyses by exposure were restricted to them. Rate ratios (RRs) in the exposed groups relative to the background groups were estimated with Poisson regression. There were 1582 deaths by the end of follow up. RESULTS--SMRs were almost all below one and never substantially increased, although there were a few increased rate ratios (RRs). There was a significant RR of 2.00 (95% confidence interval (95% CI) 1.37-2.93) for deaths caused by accidents and violence in workers exposed to magnetic fields, RR of 1.82 (95% CI 1.25-2.65) for electric fields, and RR of 1.62 (95% CI 1.13-2.32) for pulsed electromagnetic fields. Occupational accidents related to power lines explain some of the excess of deaths from accidents and violence. Some association was found between magnetic fields and leukaemia, brain cancer, and suicide, between electric fields and brain cancer and suicide, and between pulsed electromagnetic fields and lung cancer, but these were not significant. CONCLUSION--These results are broadly reassuring that major causes of death are not strongly associated with exposure to electric and magnetic fields, but small numbers and approximate exposure assessments preclude the denial of any risk, in particular if it were to affect a rare cause of death.

https://oem.bmj.com/content/oemed/53/1/25.full.pdf

Ian G. P. Fraser

Papers

Impact of a Screening Programme in General Practice: A Randomized Controlled Trial