https://www.fafich.ufmg.br/cogvila/discexp3/wmebuff.pdf

The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?

Miller (1956) summarized evidence that people can remember about seven chunks in short-term memory (STM) tasks. How- ever, that number was meant more as a rough estimate and a rhetorical device than as a real capacity limit. Others have since suggested that there is a more precise capacity limit, but that it is only three to five chunks. The present target article brings together a wide vari- ety of data on capacity limits suggesting that the smaller capacity limit is real. Capacity limits will be useful in analyses of information processing only if the boundary conditions for observing them can be carefully described. Four basic conditions in which chunks can be identified and capacity limits can accordingly be observed are: (1) when information overload limits chunks to individual stimulus items, (2) when other steps are taken specifically to block the recoding of stimulus items into larger chunks, (3) in performance discontinuities caused by the capacity limit, and (4) in various indirect effects of the capacity limit. Under these conditions, rehearsal and long-term memory cannot be used to combine stimulus items into chunks of an unknown size; nor can storage mechanisms that are not capacity- limited, such as sensory memory, allow the capacity-limited storage mechanism to be refilled during recall. A single, central capacity limit averaging about four chunks is implicated along with other, noncapacity-limited sources. The pure STM capacity limit expressed in chunks is distinguished from compound STM limits obtained when the number of separately held chunks is unclear. Reasons why pure capacity estimates fall within a narrow range are discussed and a capacity limit for the focus of attention is proposed.

/pdf/the-magical-number-4-in-short-term-memory-a-reconsideration-3704b9phuz.pdf

The magical number 4 in short-term memory: a reconsideration of mental storage capacity.

The concept of working memory proposes that a dedicated system maintains and stores information in the short term, and that this system underlies human thought processes. Current views of working memory involve a central executive and two storage systems: the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad. Although this basic model was first proposed 30 years ago, it has continued to develop and to stimulate research and debate. The model and the most recent results are reviewed in this article.

/pdf/working-memory-looking-back-and-looking-forward-58jorxris3.pdf

Working memory: looking back and looking forward

This article describes a 2-systems model that explains social behavior as a joint function of reflective and impulsive processes. In particular, it is assumed that social behavior is controlled by 2 interacting systems that follow different operating principles. The reflective system generates behavioral decisions that are based on knowledge about facts and values, whereas the impulsive system elicits behavior through associative links and motivational orientations. The proposed model describes how the 2 systems interact at various stages of processing, and how their outputs may determine behavior in a synergistic or antagonistic fashion. It extends previous models by integrating motivational components that allow more precise predictions of behavior. The implications of this reflective–impulsive model are applied to various phenomena from social psychology and beyond. Extending previous dual-process accounts, this model is not limited to specific domains of mental functioning and attempts to integrate cognitive, motivational, and behavioral mechanisms.

/pdf/reflective-and-impulsive-determinants-of-social-behavior-fd62htt3ys.pdf

Reflective and Impulsive Determinants of Social Behavior

This review of 122 research reports (184 independent samples, 14,900 subjects) found average r = .274 for prediction of behavioral, judgment, and physiological measures by Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures. Parallel explicit (i.e., self-report) measures, available in 156 of these samples (13,068 subjects), also predicted effectively (average r = .361), but with much greater variability of effect size. Predictive validity of self-report was impaired for socially sensitive topics, for which impression management may distort self-report responses. For 32 samples with criterion measures involving Black-White interracial behavior, predictive validity of IAT measures significantly exceeded that of self-report measures. Both IAT and self-report measures displayed incremental validity, with each measure predicting criterion variance beyond that predicted by the other. The more highly IAT and self-report measures were intercorrelated, the greater was the predictive validity of each.

https://faculty.washington.edu/agg/pdf/GPU&B.meta-analysis.JPSP.2009.pdf

Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity.

A model of memory retrieval is described. The model embodies 4 main claims: (a) temporal memory-traces of items are represented in memory partly in terms of their temporal distance from the present; (b) scale-similarity-similar mechanisms govern retrieval from memory over many different timescales; (c) local distinctiveness-performance, on a range of memory tasks is determined by interference from near psychological neighbors; and (d) interference-based forgetting-all memory loss is due to interference and not trace decay. The model is applied to data on free recall and serial recall. The account emphasizes qualitative similarity in the retrieval principles involved in memory performance at all timescales, contrary to models that emphasize distinctions between short-term and long-term memory.

/pdf/a-temporal-ratio-model-of-memory-5fvweswtk5.pdf

A Temporal Ratio Model of Memory

Implicit attitudes can be measured.

The feature model (Nairne, 1990) is extended to account for the effects of irrelevant speech and concomitant interactions in immediate serial recall. In the feature model, both articulatory suppression and irrelevant speech are seen as adding noise to the memory representation, the difference being that articulatory suppression diverts more resources than does irrelevant speech. The addition of noise impairs recall because it reduces the probability of successful redintegration. When a competitor is incorrectly recalled, rather than the correct item, this competitor is recalled out of order, producing an increase in order errors. Six simulations are reported that show that the model accounts for (1) the impairment by both irrelevant speech and articulatory suppression, (2) the irrelevance of the phonological and semantic composition of the irrelevant speech, (3) greater disruption when the irrelevant speech tokens vary, (4) the abolition of the phonological similarity effect for visual, but not for auditory, items, (5) the abolition of the word length effect for both visual and auditory items, and (6) the abolition of the irrelevant speech effect under articulatory suppression for both visual and auditory items. The feature model is compared with the two other major views of irrelevant speech, the phonological store hypothesis and the changing state hypothesis.

Modeling the effects of irrelevant speech on memory.

1. Introduction and Historical Overview. Introduction. Memory Metaphors. Memory Methodology. Memory Terminology. A Short History. Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The Beginning of Modern Psychology. ritish Empiricism and Continental Nativism. Scientific Psychology. Hermann Ebbinghaus. Experiment: The Forgetting Function. Research After Ebbinghaus. 2. Sensory Memory. Iconic Memory. Online Experiment: Partial Report Problems with Iconic Memory. Summary of Iconic Memory. Echoic Memory. Theories of Echoic Memory: PAS. Experiment: The stimulus suffix effect. Online Experiment: Suffix Effect. Other Theories of Echoic Memory. Summary of Iconic Memory. Odor Memory. Summary of Sensory Memory. 3. The Modal Model. Primary Memory. Broadbent"s Model. Online Experiment: Absolute Identification. Brown-Peterson. Online Experiment: Brown Peterson. Waugh and Norman"s Model. Atkinson and Shiffrin"s Model. Online Experiment: Sternberg Memory Scanning. The Serial Position Curve and the Modal Model. Online Experiment: Serial Position. Problems with the Modal Model. Experiment: Recency Effects in Free Recall. Summary of the Modal Model. 4. Working Memory. Baddeley"s Working Memory. The Phonological Loop. Experiment: The Syllable-Based Word Length Effect. The Episodic Buffer. Critique of Working Memory. Online Experiment: Memory Span. Working Memory as Activation. The Embedded Processes Model. Working Memory Capacity. Online Experiment: Operation Span. The Feature Model. Simulations Using the Feature Model. Critique of the Feature Model. Summary of Current Immediate Memory Theories. 5. Perspectives on Processing. Levels of Processing. Experiment: Levels of Processing. Transfer Appropriate Processing. Organization and Distinctiveness. Encoding Specificity Principle. Online Experiment: Encoding Specificity. Context and Memory. The Process Dissociation Framework. What is Encoded? Summary. 6. Forgetting. Consolidation Theory. Interference Theory. Decay versus Interference in Immediate Memory. Experiment: Buildup and Release from PI. Relative Distinctiveness. Online Experiment: Von Restorff Effect. Any Evidence for Decay? Forgetting as Discrimination. 7. Implicit Memory. Implicit Learning. Online Experiment: Implicit Learning. Experimental Dissociations.Experiment: Priming Word Fragment Completion. Theoretical Accounts of Implicit Memory. The Activation View. Multiple Memory Systems. Transfer Appropriate Processing. The Bias View.Comparing Bias, TAP, and the Multiple Systems Views. Summary. 8. Memory, the Brain, and Amnesia. The Neuron. The Brain. Methods of Investigation. Invasive Techniques. Noninvasive Techniques. Online Experiment: Brain Asymmetry. Experiment: Laterality of Language. Amnesia. HM: A Case Study. Theoretical Accounts of Amnesia. Summary. Alzheimer"s Disease. Box: How can I tell the difference between Alzheimer"s Disease and normal aging? Box: What are the treatments for Alzheimer"s Disease and are they effective? Summary. Multiple Sclerosis. The Frontal Lobe. Where is Memory? 9. Recognition. Signal Detection Theory. Experiment: Recognition and Signal Detection Theory. Single Process Models. Generate-Recognize Models. Beyond Simple Generate-Recognize Models. Remember versus Know. Online Experiment: Remember Know. Recollection versus Familiarity. The Mirror Effect. Face Recognition. 10. Knowledge. Propositions and Concepts. Collins and Quillian"s Hierarchical Model. The Feature Overlap Model. Experiment: Typicality Effects and Inference. Collins and Loftus" Spreading Activation Model. Knowing That You Don"t Know. Priming. Online Experiment: Lexical Decision. Alternatives to Spreading Activation. Comparing Spreading Activation and Compound Cue Theory. How is Generic Memory Organized? Capacity and Acquisition. 11. Imagery. Analog versus Propositional Representations. The Dual-Task Method. Paivio"s Dual-Coding Theory. Experiment: Dual Coding Theory. Mental Rotation. Online Experiment: Mental Rotation. Distinguishing Propositional from Analog Representation. Arguments Against Imagery. Imagery and Perception. Real versus Imagined Events. Eidetic Imagery. Other Forms of Imagery. Auditory Imagery. Odor Imagery. 12. Reconstructive Processes. Schemas. Specific Schemas. Malleability of Generic Memory. Eyewitness Memory. Flashbulb Memories. Hypnosis and Memory. The Cognitive Interview. Implanting Memories. Experiment: Memory for words not presented. Online Experiment: False Memory. Recovered Memories. Memory Illusions. 13. When. Data to be Accounted For. Models that Don"t Work. Perturbation Theory. Experiment: Memory for Position. The Inference Model of Memory for When. Item Versus Order Information. Models of Serial Order. 14. Developmental Changes in Memory. 15. Mnemonics. Can I Improve My Memory? The Bad News. The Good News. Online Experiment: Link Word. Technical Mnemonics. Experiment: Imagery and Mnemonics. Exceptional Memories. 16. Supplement: Memory Models. SAM. Compound Cue Theory. Diffusion Model. MINERVA2. TODAM. Connectionist Models. Feature Model. 17. Appendix. Table A: Twenty-Four Nonsense Syllables (CVCs). Table B: Random Arrangements of the Digits 1-9. Table C: Ninety-six Two-Syllable Words. Table D: Eight Short and Eight Long Words. Table E: Twenty-Five Common Two-Syllable Nouns. Table F: Thirty Two Consonant Trigrams. Table G: Fifty-Six Category Names. Table H: Sixty Word Fragments. Table I: Eighty Concrete and Eighty Abstract Words.

Human Memory: An Introduction to Research, Data, and Theory

Digitized photographs of snowflakes were presented for a recognition test after retention intervals of varying durations. While overall accuracy and discrimination remained constant, as the retention interval increased, primacy increased from chance to reliably better than chance while recency decreased to chance levels. A variation of Murdock’s (1960) distinctiveness model accounted for the changing primacy and recency effects observed in both between- and within-subjects designs. The generality of the model was examined in two different paradigms: lexical access during sentence processing, and free recall in the continual distractor paradigm. In both cases, the model made accurate qualitative predictions for both latency and accuracy measures.

/pdf/distinctiveness-and-serial-position-effects-in-recognition-1o6uf2ovuw.pdf

Ian Neath

Papers

A Temporal Ratio Model of Memory

Implicit attitudes can be measured.

Modeling the effects of irrelevant speech on memory.

Human Memory: An Introduction to Research, Data, and Theory

Distinctiveness and serial position effects in recognition