Public Management Reform. A Comparative Analysis

New Patterns of Management.

This meta-analysis synthesized 102 effect sizes reflecting the relation between specific moods and creativity. Effect sizes overall revealed that positive moods produce more creativity than mood-neutral controls (r= .15), but no significant differences between negative moods and mood-neutral controls (r= -.03) or between positive and negative moods (r= .04) were observed. Creativity is enhanced most by positive mood states that are activating and associated with an approach motivation and promotion focus (e.g., happiness), rather than those that are deactivating and associated with an avoidance motivation and prevention focus (e.g., relaxed). Negative, deactivating moods with an approach motivation and a promotion focus (e.g., sadness) were not associated with creativity, but negative, activating moods with an avoidance motivation and a prevention focus (fear, anxiety) were associated with lower creativity, especially when assessed as cognitive flexibility. With a few exceptions, these results generalized across experimental and correlational designs, populations (students vs. general adult population), and facet of creativity (e.g., fluency, flexibility, originality, eureka/insight). The authors discuss theoretical implications and highlight avenues for future research on specific moods, creativity, and their relationships.

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A meta-analysis of 25 years of mood-creativity research: Hedonic tone, activation, or regulatory focus?

Animal research suggests that central serotonergic neurons are involved in behavioral suppression, particularly anxiety-related inhibition. The hypothesis linking decreased serotonin transmission to reduced anxiety as the mechanism in the anxiolytic activity of benzodiazepines conflicts with most clinical observations. Serotonin antagonists show no marked capacity to alleviate anxiety. On the other hand, clinical signs of reduced serotonergic transmission (low 5-HIAA levels in the cerebrospinal fluid) are frequently associated with aggressiveness, suicide attempts, and increased anxiety. The target article attempts to reconcile such human and animal findings by investigating whether anxiety reduction or increased impulsivity is more Likely to account for animal behavioral changes associated with decreased serotonergic transmission. The effects of manipulating central serotonin in experimental anxiety paradigms in animals (punishment, extinction, novelty) are reviewed and compared with the effects of antianxiety drugs. Anxiety seems neither necessary nor sufficient to induce control by serotonergic neurons on behavior. Further evidence suggests that behavioral effects of anxiolytics thought to be mediated by decreases in anxiety are not caused by the ability of these drugs to reduce serotonin transmission. Blockade of serotonin transmission, especially at the level of the substantia nigra, results in a shift of behavior toward facilitation of responding. This behavioral shift is particularly marked when there is competition between acting and restraining response tendencies and when obstacles prevent the immediate attainment of an anticipated reward. It is proposed that serotonergic neurons are involved not only in behavioral arousal but also in enabling the organism to arrange or tolerate delay before acting. Decreases in serotonin transmission seem to be associated with the increased performance of behaviors that are usually suppressed, though not necessarily because of the alleviation of anxiety, which might contribute to the suppression.

Reconciling the role of central serotonin neurons in human and animal behavior

Creativity in Context: Update to "The Social Psychology of Creativity"

The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in anxiety and defense mechanisms between differently creative people. Two extreme groups that scored either very high or very low on a test of the creative function were selected from a larger cohort (N = 60). Each group consisted of 12 male undergraduate students, who took a test of defense mechanisms and completed anxiety inventories. The results showed that the high-creative group had more anxiety than the low-creative group. The high-creative group also used a greater number of different defense categories than the low-creative group. The number of defense categories was positively correlated with a fluency measure in the creativity test. These results are discussed in terms of variability in basal arousal, flexibility, and a creative defensive style.

Anxiety and Flexibility of Defense Related to High or Low Creativity

The creative process: a functional model based on empirical studies from early childhood to middle age.

The relationship between creativity and androgyny was studied in 163 women and men with the Creative Functioning Test (CFT) and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). A 2 (femininity: high/low) x 2 (masculinity: high/low) x 2 (sex) ANOVA was conducted on subjects' CFT scores. A significant interaction effect between femininity and masculinity was found showing that subjects high on both femininity and masculinity (androgynous) and low on both scales (undifferentiated) reached higher CFT scores than female-typed and male-typed subjects. Further, a significant three-way interaction including sex of subject indicated that the former two-way interaction was accounted for by men only.

Androgyny and creativity: a study of the relationship between a balanced sex-role and creative functioning.

Tested a group of 31 psychiatric patients with anxiety as one of their main symptoms using a percept-genetic (PG) test measuring creativity or willingness to reconstruct subjective interpretations of the stimulus. A control group of 43 from an earlier study was also included. For half of the subjects a threatening motif was presented subliminally during part of the PG series. By means of an interview, an estimation was made of the subjects' urge to create and of the severity of their anxiety. The Meta-Contrast Technique (MCT) was used to describe defenses in the clinical group. Taking into account their urge to be creative, the clinical subjects received relatively few positive scores on the PG test. The subliminal addition to the anxiety level did not facilitate creative functioning as was the case with the normal subjects. The main obstacles to creative functioning seemed to be grave anxiety and rigid defense mechanisms or, to generalize, low tolorance of the anxiety necessarily associated with creative work.

Creativity and anxiety: An experimental study

The study investigated aspects of dream sharing and dream recall in an adult sample (N = 667). It explored with whom dreams are shared and why, as well as the relation between relationship intimacy and dream sharing frequency with the partner. A significant, positive correlation was found between dream sharing frequency in couples and perceived relationship intimacy. Further, the findings supported previous research in that women recalled and shared more dreams than men. It was also found, that dreams primarily were shared with a partner (if in a relationship), and with friends (if single), and that nonsingles shared dreams more often than singles. Dreams were shared primarily with the purpose of entertainment. Interestingly, men more than women believed that sharing dreams can lead to improved relationship intimacy.

Ingegerd Carlsson

Papers

Anxiety and Flexibility of Defense Related to High or Low Creativity

The creative process: a functional model based on empirical studies from early childhood to middle age.

Androgyny and creativity: a study of the relationship between a balanced sex-role and creative functioning.

Creativity and anxiety: An experimental study

Sharing dreams: Frequency, motivations, and relationship intimacy.