This book describes the present state of knowledge regarding the impact of cyanobacteria on health through the use of water. It considers aspects of risk management and details the information needed for protecting drinking water sources and recreational water bodies from the health hazards caused by cyanobacteria and their toxins. It also outlines the state of knowledge regarding the principal considerations in the design of programmes and studies for monitoring water resources and supplies and describes the approaches and procedures used.
The development of this publication was guided by the recommendations of several expert meetings concerning drinking water (Geneva, December 1995; Bad Elster, June
1996) and recreational water (Bad Elster, June 1996; St Helier, May 1997). An expert meeting in Bad Elster, April 1997, critically reviewed the literature concerning the toxicity of cyanotoxins and developed the scope and content of this book. A draft manuscript was reviewed at an editorial meeting in November 1997, and a further draft was
reviewed by the working group responsible for updating the Guidelines for Drinkingwater Quality in March 1998.

/pdf/toxic-cyanobacteria-in-water-a-guide-to-their-public-health-2y64v55hv1.pdf

Toxic cyanobacteria in water: a guide to their public health consequences, monitoring and management.

Emerging recognition of two fundamental errors under-pinning past polices for natural resource issues heralds awareness of the need for a worldwide fundamental change in thinking and in practice of environmental management. The first error has been an implicit assumption that ecosystem responses to human use are linear, predictable and controllable. The second has been an assumption that human and natural systems can be treated independently. However, evidence that has been accumulating in diverse regions all over the world suggests that natural and social systems behave in nonlinear ways, exhibit marked thresholds in their dynamics, and that social-ecological systems act as strongly coupled, complex and evolving integrated systems. This article is a summary of a report prepared on behalf of the Environmental Advisory Council to the Swedish Government, as input to the process of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa in 26 August 4 September 2002. We use the concept of resilience—the capacity to buffer change, learn and develop—as a framework for understanding how to sustain and enhance adaptive capacity in a complex world of rapid transformations. Two useful tools for resilience-building in social-ecological systems are structured scenarios and active adaptive management. These tools require and facilitate a social context with flexible and open institutions and multi-level governance systems that allow for learning and increase adaptive capacity without foreclosing future development options.

https://bioone.org/journals/AMBIO-A-Journal-of-the-Human-Environment/volume-31/issue-5/0044-7447-31.5.437/Resilience-and-Sustainable-Development--Building-Adaptive-Capacity-in-a/10.1579/0044-7447-31.5.437.pdf

Resilience and sustainable development: building adaptive capacity in a world of transformations

Although algal blooms, including those considered toxic or harmful, can be natural phenomena, the nature of the global problem of harmful algal blooms (HABs) has expanded both in extent and its public perception over the last several decades. Of concern, especially for resource managers, is the potential relationship between HABs and the accelerated eutrophication of coastal waters from human activities. We address current insights into the relationships between HABs and eutrophication, focusing on sources of nutrients, known effects of nutrient loading and reduction, new understanding of pathways of nutrient acquisition among HAB species, and relationships between nutrients and toxic algae. Through specific, regional, and global examples of these various relationships, we offer both an assessment of the state of understanding, and the uncertainties that require future research efforts. The sources of nutrients poten- tially stimulating algal blooms include sewage, atmospheric deposition, groundwater flow, as well as agricultural and aquaculture runoff and discharge. On a global basis, strong correlations have been demonstrated between total phos- phorus inputs and phytoplankton production in freshwaters, and between total nitrogen input and phytoplankton pro- duction in estuarine and marine waters. There are also numerous examples in geographic regions ranging from the largest and second largest U.S. mainland estuaries (Chesapeake Bay and the Albemarle-Pamlico Estuarine System), to the Inland Sea of Japan, the Black Sea, and Chinese coastal waters, where increases in nutrient loading have been linked with the development of large biomass blooms, leading to anoxia and even toxic or harmful impacts on fisheries re- sources, ecosystems, and human health or recreation. Many of these regions have witnessed reductions in phytoplankton biomass (as chlorophyll a) or HAB incidence when nutrient controls were put in place. Shifts in species composition have often been attributed to changes in nutrient supply ratios, primarily N:P or N:Si. Recently this concept has been extended to include organic forms of nutrients, and an elevation in the ratio of dissolved organic carbon to dissolved organic nitrogen (DOC:DON) has been observed during several recent blooms. The physiological strategies by which different groups of species acquire their nutrients have become better understood, and alternate modes of nutrition such as heterotrophy and mixotrophy are now recognized as common among HAB species. Despite our increased un- derstanding of the pathways by which nutrients are delivered to ecosystems and the pathways by which they are assimilated differentially by different groups of species, the relationships between nutrient delivery and the development of blooms and their potential toxicity or harmfulness remain poorly understood. Many factors such as algal species presence/ abundance, degree of flushing or water exchange, weather conditions, and presence and abundance of grazers contribute to the success of a given species at a given point in time. Similar nutrient loads do not have the same impact in different environments or in the same environment at different points in time. Eutrophication is one of several mechanisms by which harmful algae appear to be increasing in extent and duration in many locations. Although important, it is not the only explanation for blooms or toxic outbreaks. Nutrient enrichment has been strongly linked to stimulation of some harmful species, but for others it has not been an apparent contributing factor. The overall effect of nutrient over- enrichment on harmful algal species is clearly species specific.

/pdf/harmful-algal-blooms-and-eutrophication-nutrient-sources-4ujytujxjq.pdf

Harmful Algal Blooms and Eutrophication: Nutrient Sources, Composition, and Consequences

Communities of microscopic plant life, or phytoplankton, dominate the Earth's aquatic ecosystems. This important new book by Colin Reynolds covers the adaptations, physiology and population dynamics of phytoplankton communities in lakes and rivers and oceans. It provides basic information on composition, morphology and physiology of the main phyletic groups represented in marine and freshwater systems and in addition reviews recent advances in community ecology, developing an appreciation of assembly processes, co-existence and competition, disturbance and diversity. Although focussed on one group of organisms, the book develops many concepts relevant to ecology in the broadest sense, and as such will appeal to graduate students and researchers in ecology, limnology and oceanography.

/pdf/the-ecology-of-phytoplankton-4ev70n3jsq.pdf

The Ecology of Phytoplankton

The rise of harmful cyanobacteria blooms: The potential roles of eutrophication and climate change

Sanitary completion of protection works around groundwater sources.

The socioeconomic conditions in areas where groundwater is used or recharge occurs are critical to the development of groundwater protection measures. The protection of groundwater may be expensive and disruptive to the inhabitants of the land above the aquifers. Socioeconomic conditions play an important role in determining the likely contaminant loads and types of contaminant that affect the groundwater. It is also critical in determining what types of intervention are possible, how such interventions will be implemented and what resources (including human) will be required and are available. Institutional and legal issues are also critical in determining the success or failure of groundwater protection policies and strategies. Weak institutions and poor institutional frameworks are commonly identified with poor implementation of water policy (World Bank, 1993; WELL, 1998). The development of groundwater policies and strategies must therefore provide adequate consideration of the appropriate institutional arrangements and consider how the needs of all stakeholders can be incorporated into the policy. The latter demands that there are effective processes of public consultation and participation in policy and strategy development. Legislation is also vital to support effective groundwater protection. Not only should the law be supportive of groundwater protection, effective implementation of the law is required to ensure groundwater protection objectives are met (Caponera, 1992; Foster et al., 1992). The purpose of this chapter is to discuss some of the key socioeconomic , institutional and legal issues that are important to consider in groundwater protection. In Chapter 7, the types of information and methods of data collection will be discussed; Chapter 20 outlines how socioeconomic issues, and the institutional and legal frameworks can be addressed in developing groundwater protection. 5.1 Socioeconomic status: issues of poverty and wealth Socioeconomic status is a measure of the wealth of individuals, households and communities and reflects their assets as well as their ability of households to obtain goods and services. Socioeconomic status is of importance when considering the level of investment in groundwater management which individuals, communities and societies are willing or able to pay for. Socioeconomic conditions influence the capacity for different groups to protect their environment. For instance, in some communities short-term priorities for resource exploitation override the need for resource protection necessary to secure a long-term livelihood, despite the recognition in the communities of the need for such protection. The poor are usually at greater risk from the adverse effects of poor resource management and …

Socioeconomic, institutional and legal aspects in groundwater assessment and protection.

When planning monitoring programmes, it is important that all participating institutions, companies and laboratories agree on the type and number of samples that eventually are to be analysed. This chapter focuses on cyanobacteria, cyanotoxins and parameters describing growth conditions favourable for cyanobacteria. Bertani et al. showed that monitoring strategies considerably affect the outcome of cyanobacterial monitoring. A basic understanding of limnology is a prerequisite for planning an appropriate monitoring programme for cyanobacterial occurrence in waterbodies; therefore, persons trained in limnology should be consulted in the planning phase, preferably with knowledge of the local waterbodies. Fieldwork, including site inspection, sample collection and, in most programmes, some on-site analyses, largely determines the quality of information obtained from the subsequent laboratory analyses. The frequency of site inspection and sampling also needs to be adapted to the objective of the programme. Training should include the handling of sampling and measuring devices as well as recognition of visible aspects of cyanobacterial blooms.

Planning monitoring programmes for cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins

Phytoplankton composition, biodiversity and a pilot survey of toxic cyanoprokaryotes in a large cascading reservoir-system (Tietê basin, São Paulo State, Brazil)

Using the knowledge of the regional groundwater conditions and the nature of the human activities and their possible impacts on groundwater quality provided by Sections I and II, this chapter describes the assessment of groundwater pollution potential, and illustrates the approach with two case studies. The intention of the chapter is to indicate the general scope and scale of what is required to assess groundwater pollution potential, rather than to provide detailed technical guidance on how it should be done. This more detailed technical material, aimed more at the practising professional actually carrying out such an assessment, can be found in, for example, Foster et al. (2002) and Zaporozec (2002). Chapter 15 then builds on this assessment to provide guidance on establishing groundwater management priorities to reduce the impact of pollution, either by increasing the protection measures at drinking water sources (Section IV) or by controlling pollution sources and the activities causing pollution (Section V). Assessment of groundwater pollution potential in a given drinking water catchment may be conducted under a wide variety of conditions and at varying spatial scales and levels of sophistication (Foster and Hirata, 1988). As a result, the assessment can produce a wide range of outcomes. The conditions may range from simple settings with almost self-evident identification of one or two key hazards (e.g. high density of poorly sealed latrines on a shallow aquifer) to highly complex urban and industrial scenarios with diverse human activities, in which the key sources of pollution are difficult to identify. This complexity may perhaps be coupled with small-scale variations in geology and hydrogeological conditions, rendering vulnerability assessments equally demanding. This broad variation means that assessments of pollution potential can require an equally broad range of sophistication, ranging from reconnaissance surveys of the major potential sources of groundwater pollution to detailed surveys of chemical or microbiological pollutant loads and even to simple modelling of, for example, the leaching potential of pesticides used in the catchment. This implies that experienced professionals from the hydrogeology and environmental engineering disciplines will normally be needed, both to help decide on the level of sophistication required, and to undertake the assessment itself. NOTE X This chapter indicates the general scope and scale of what is required to assess groundwater pollution potential, rather than providing detailed technical guidance on how it should be done. Prior to undertaking the assessment of groundwater pollution potential, the first exercise is …

https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/PGWsection3.pdf

Ingrid Chorus

Papers

Sanitary completion of protection works around groundwater sources.

Socioeconomic, institutional and legal aspects in groundwater assessment and protection.

Planning monitoring programmes for cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins

Phytoplankton composition, biodiversity and a pilot survey of toxic cyanoprokaryotes in a large cascading reservoir-system (Tietê basin, São Paulo State, Brazil)

Assessment of groundwater pollution potential.