. During the past decades, human water use has more than doubled, yet available freshwater resources are finite. As a result, water scarcity has been prevalent in various regions of the world. Here, we present the first global assessment of past development of water stress considering not only climate variability but also growing water demand, desalinated water use and non-renewable groundwater abstraction over the period 1960–2001 at a spatial resolution of 0.5°. Agricultural water demand is estimated based on past extents of irrigated areas and livestock densities. We approximate past economic development based on GDP, energy and household consumption and electricity production, which are subsequently used together with population numbers to estimate industrial and domestic water demand. Climate variability is expressed by simulated blue water availability defined by freshwater in rivers, lakes, wetlands and reservoirs by means of the global hydrological model PCR-GLOBWB. We thus define blue water stress by comparing blue water availability with corresponding net total blue water demand by means of the commonly used, Water Scarcity Index. The results show a drastic increase in the global population living under water-stressed conditions (i.e. moderate to high water stress) due to growing water demand, primarily for irrigation, which has more than doubled from 1708/818 to 3708/1832 km3 yr−1 (gross/net) over the period 1960–2000. We estimate that 800 million people or 27% of the global population were living under water-stressed conditions for 1960. This number is eventually increased to 2.6 billion or 43% for 2000. Our results indicate that increased water demand is a decisive factor for heightened water stress in various regions such as India and North China, enhancing the intensity of water stress up to 200%, while climate variability is often a main determinant of extreme events. However, our results also suggest that in several emerging and developing economies (e.g. India, Turkey, Romania and Cuba) some of past extreme events were anthropogenically driven due to increased water demand rather than being climate-induced.

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Modelling global water stress of the recent past: on the relative importance of trends in water demand and climate variability

Land degradation is a major environmental issue affecting numerous countries worldwide, including certain European states. An in-depth understanding of this complex process’s spatial pattern requires multicriteria approaches such as MEDALUS (Mediterranean Desertification and Land Use) model, which can be extremely useful in identifying lands that are sensitive to degradation in countries that have yet to be explored in this respect, such as Romania. This paper aims to apply the well-established MEDALUS methodology for the first time in a nationwide analysis of Romania, based on various spatial data used as main indicators and sub-indicators (environmental parameters) considered to be driving forces of land degradation. The study aims to map and statistically assess lands with different degrees of sensitivity to degradation, considering seven main environmental quality indicators, four of which are featured in the original MEDALUS method (Climate Quality Index – CQI, Soil Quality Index – SQI, Vegetation Quality Index – VQI and Management Quality Index – MQI), while three were proposed and added (Water Quality Index – WQI, Geomorphological Quality Index – GQI and Anthropic Quality Index – AQI) in order to capture the particularities of potentially degraded lands in Romania as accurately as possible. The seven quality indicators were processed by considering 24 geographical parameters, 14 of which were featured in the standard MEDALUS method, while 10 parameters were added in order to reflect the specific land degradation conditions in Romania. The final results, analysed using the Land Degradation Sensitivity Index (LDSI), showed that 29% (~68,600 km2) of the country’s total area is critically sensitive to degradation, if considering the most complex LDSI model, assessed based on all biophysical/natural (CQI, SQI, GQI, VQI and WQI) and anthropogenic (MQI and AQI) indicators. If considering the LDSI obtained based only on biophysical indicators (which highlight the natural degradation of lands, not directly influenced by anthropogenic pressures), then only 18% (~42,400 km2) of Romania’s territory is critically susceptible to degradation. Spatially, it was found that extra-Carpathian areas are by far the most heavily threatened by degradation. The results provide a full overview of this process in Romania and can constitute a basic scientific support for implementing current and future policies aimed at fighting the negative ecological and socio-economic effects of this disrupting environmental process.

Spatial assessment of land sensitivity to degradation across Romania. A quantitative approach based on the modified MEDALUS methodology

The purposes of the report are to analyze the current situation and areas for improvement in the capacity of implementing National Climate Change Strategy and provide recommendations on institutional capacity building. After the introduction chapter, the current situation as well as the CC commitments that Romania has undertaken are presented in chapter two. Chapter three provides the possible good practices that could provide inspiration for further reform. A contrast of the commitments with the current capacity and the available good practices has been substantiated in the analyses of capacity gaps that need to be addressed in chapter four. The next chapter provides the avenues for breaching those gaps and sustainably building CC capacity in order to ensure the smooth implementation of the Strategy. Project management and financing is treated separately in chapter six since it has been an issue of particular concern and difficulty for the GoR. Finally, chapter seven sets out the basic elements of a public engagement campaign that will be essential for making CC a national issue present in the awareness of the public authorities, civil society and general public alike. A comprehensive list of the proposed measures and their time horizons can be found in annex one.

Romania - Climate Change and Low Carbon Green Growth Program

Recent spatio-temporal changes of land sensitivity to degradation in Romania due to climate change and human activities: An approach based on multiple environmental quality indicators

As with other countries in ECE, Romania began its transition with some major environmental problems because legislation failed to deliver effective pollution controls. Although scarcely apparent during the last years of Communism, an ecological movement achieved early political success and some of the worst affected areas have now seen substantial improvements. In addition, the slow‐down in the economy helped to reduce the scale of environmental damage, although rising unemployment helped to breed a survival mentality which had made the public wary of supporting radical environmental programmes. However, with the help of foreign capital and technology, progress continues to be made on a broad front and the legislative programme of 1995–96 should go a long way to bring Romania into line with EU practices.

Environmental action during Romania's early transition years

In relation to population Romania's water supplies are quite modest. They are provided by the rivers, which meet 89% of the present demand (48% from the Danube and 41% from the interior rivers), and by the underground sources which account for 11%. Mean specific runoff is 4.57 1/sec. km2 but there are significant variations through both space and time. The factors responsible for both maximum and minimum runoff are discussed and particular reference is made to the floods of 1970. Load and turbidity levels are also discussed. Underground water sources are described and a review of demand gives particular attention to hydroelectricity and water transport. Principles for future management of water supplies are summarised in conclusion.

Ion Zavoianu

Papers

Romania's water resources and their use