The present article presents a meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. With 713 independent samples from 515 studies, the meta-analysis finds that intergroup contact typically reduces intergroup prejudice. Multiple tests indicate that this finding appears not to result from either participant selection or publication biases, and the more rigorous studies yield larger mean effects. These contact effects typically generalize to the entire outgroup, and they emerge across a broad range of outgroup targets and contact settings. Similar patterns also emerge for samples with racial or ethnic targets and samples with other targets. This result suggests that contact theory, devised originally for racial and ethnic encounters, can be extended to other groups. A global indicator of Allport's optimal contact conditions demonstrates that contact under these conditions typically leads to even greater reduction in prejudice. Closer examination demonstrates that these conditions are best conceptualized as an interrelated bundle rather than as independent factors. Further, the meta-analytic findings indicate that these conditions are not essential for prejudice reduction. Hence, future work should focus on negative factors that prevent intergroup contact from diminishing prejudice as well as the development of a more comprehensive theory of intergroup contact.

A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory.

Part I. Experimental Studies: 2. Experiment in psychology 3. Experiments on perceiving III Experiments on imaging 4-8. Experiments on remembering: (a) The method of description (b) The method of repeated reproduction (c) The method of picture writing (d) The method of serial reproduction (e) The method of serial reproduction picture material 9. Perceiving, recognizing, remembering 10. A theory of remembering 11. Images and their functions 12. Meaning Part II. Remembering as a Study in Social Psychology: 13. Social psychology 14. Social psychology and the matter of recall 15. Social psychology and the manner of recall 16. Conventionalism 17. The notion of a collective unconscious 18. The basis of social recall 19. A summary and some conclusions.

Remembering. A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology, Cambridge (University Press) 1964.

A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles.

/pdf/role-congruity-theory-of-prejudice-toward-female-leaders-4ldbwpzzgm.pdf

Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders.

Since 1980, the American College of Cardiology (ACC) and American Heart Association (AHA) have translated scientific evidence into clinical practice guidelines (guidelines) with recommendations to improve cardiovascular health. In 2013, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) Advisory

http://kidneys.zaslavsky.com.ua/article/download/122220/118980

2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA Guideline for the Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Management of High Blood Pressure in Adults: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines

Racial microaggressions are brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults toward people of color. Perpetrators of microaggressions are often unaware that they engage in such communications when they interact with racial/ethnic minorities. A taxonomy of racial microaggressions in everyday life was created through a review of the social psychological literature on aversive racism, from formulations regarding the manifestation and impact of everyday racism, and from reading numerous personal narratives of counselors (both White and those of color) on their racial/cultural awakening. Microaggressions seem to appear in three forms: microassault, microinsult, and microinvalidation. Almost all interracial encounters are prone to microaggressions; this article uses the White counselor--client of color counseling dyad to illustrate how they impair the development of a therapeutic alliance. Suggestions regarding education and training and research in the helping professions are discussed.

/pdf/racial-microaggressions-in-everyday-life-implications-for-30r75e8a7h.pdf

Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice.

The present article reviews evidence for the malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice. In contrast to assumptions that such responses are fixed and inescapable, it is shown that automatic stereotypes and prejudice are influenced by, (a) self- and social motives, (b) specific strategies, (c) the perceiver's focus of attention, and (d) the configuration of stimulus cues. In addition, group members' individual characteristics are shown to influence the extent to which (global) stereotypes and prejudice are automatically activated. This evidence has significant implications for conceptions of automaticity, models of stereotyping and prejudice, and attitude representation. The review concludes with the description of an initial model of early social information processing.

The Malleability of Automatic Stereotypes and Prejudice

An Institute of Medicine report titled U.S. Health in International Perspective: Shorter Lives, Poorer Health documents the decline in the health status of Americans relative to people in other high-income countries, concluding that “Americans are dying and suffering from illness and injury at rates that are demonstrably unnecessary.”1 The report blames many factors, “adverse economic and social conditions” among them. In an editorial in Science discussing the findings of the Institute of Medicine report, Bayer et al2 call for a national commission on health “to address the social causes that have put the USA last among comparable nations.”

Although mortality from cardiovascular disease (CVD) in the United States has been on a linear decline since the 1970s, the burden remains high. It accounted for 31.9% of deaths in 2010.3

There is general agreement that the decline is the result, in equal measure, of advances in prevention and advances in treatment. These advances in turn rest on dramatic successes in efforts to understand the biology of CVD that began in the late 1940s.4,5 It has been assumed that the steady downward trend in mortality will continue into the future as further breakthroughs in biological science lead to further advances in prevention and treatment. This view of the future may not be warranted.

The prevalence of CVD in the United States is expected to rise 10% between 2010 and 2030.6 This change in the trajectory of cardiovascular burden is the result not only of an aging population but also of a dramatic rise over the past 25 years in obesity and the hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and physical inactivity that accompany weight gain. Although there is no consensus on the precise causes of the obesity epidemic, a dramatic change in the underlying biology of Americans is …

/pdf/social-determinants-of-risk-and-outcomes-for-cardiovascular-32xag7l2hs.pdf

Social Determinants of Risk and Outcomes for Cardiovascular Disease A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

The experiments in this article were conducted to observe the automatic activation of gender stereo- types and to assess theoretically specified conditions under which such stereotype priming may be moderated. Across 4 experiments, 3 patterns of data were observed: (a) evidence of stereotype prim- ing under baseline conditions of intention and high cognitive constraints, (b) significant reduction of stereotype priming when a counterstereotype intention was formed even though cognitive con- straints were high, and (c) complete reversal of stereotype priming when a counterstereotype inten- tion was formed and cognitive constraints were low. These data support proposals that stereotypes may be automatically activated as well as proposals that perceivers can control and even eliminate such effects. That perceiver intentions and cognitive resources may be im- portant factors in the activation and influence of stereotypes has important theoretical and practical implications. For theory, an examination of the controllability of stereotyping can inform one about the conditions under which perceivers can and will oppose an automatic process. Whether perceivers are able to control the influence of stereotypes on their response, in turn, has implications for a variety of situations in which stereotypes can have serious consequences. However, little research has ex- amined the role of perceiver intentions and cognitive con- straints in determining the operation of automatic and con- trolled processes in stereotyping with procedures established to reveal the interplay of these opposing processes. The purpose of this research was twofold: (a) to examine the automatic processes that may underlie stereotyping and (b) to examine the role of intention and cognitive resources in moder- ating the influence of such processes on response. The first goal of the research was to improve and extend initial demonstra- tions of the automaticity with which stereotypes may be primed, as revealed by a semantic priming procedure developed for such a purpose. A second, more important goal of the pres- ent research was to provide an assessment of the conditions un- der which automatic processes need not result in a stereotypic response. The priming procedures used in the present research readily permit observation of competing tendencies toward the automatic expression of stereotypes and the control that may be exerted against such expression. An examination of these opposing processes in action allows much to be learned about the conditions that facilitate and inhibit stereotyping. In light of the present research goals, it is useful to consider the stereotyping process in more detail and to determine where automatic and controlled processes might have an effect. Sev- eral models of stereotyping distinguish between stereotype acti- vation (categorization) and stereotype application as sequential steps in stereotyping (Brewer, 1988; Fiske & Neuberg, 1990; Gilbert & Hixon, 1991 ). That is, stereotypes cannot be used in judgment if those stereotypes have not been previously acti- vated by situational cues, such as the target's skin color or cloth- ing. Hence, stereotype activation is a necessary but not a suffi- cient step in stereotyping. For the stereotyping process to be

Automatic and Controlled Processes in Stereotype Priming

Research on implicit stereotypes has raised important questions about an individual's ability to moderate and control stereotypic responses. With few strategies shown to be effective in moderating implicit effects, the present research investigates a new strategy based on focused mental imagery. Across 5 experiments, participants who engaged in counterstereotypic mental imagery produced substantially weaker implicit stereotypes compared with participants who engaged in neutral, stereotypic, or no mental imagery. This reduction was demonstrated with a variety of measures, eliminating explanations based on response suppression or shifts in response criterion. Instead, the results suggest that implicit stereotypes are malleable, and that controlled processes, such as mental imagery, may influence the stereotyping process at its early as well as later stages.

Imagining stereotypes away: The moderation of implicit stereotypes through mental imagery.

Prior research has shown that within a racial category, people with more Afrocentric facial features are presumed more likely to have traits that are stereotypic of Black Americans compared with people with less Afrocentric features. The present study investigated whether this form of feature-based stereotyping might be observed in criminal-sentencing decisions. Analysis of a random sample of inmate records showed that Black and White inmates, given equivalent criminal histories, received roughly equivalent sentences. However, within each race, inmates with more Afrocentric features received harsher sentences than those with less Afrocentric features. These results are consistent with laboratory findings, and they suggest that although racial stereotyping as a function of racial category has been successfully removed from sentencing decisions, racial stereotyping based on the facial features of the offender is a form of bias that is largely overlooked.

Irene V. Blair

Papers

The Malleability of Automatic Stereotypes and Prejudice

Social Determinants of Risk and Outcomes for Cardiovascular Disease A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

Automatic and Controlled Processes in Stereotype Priming

Imagining stereotypes away: The moderation of implicit stereotypes through mental imagery.

The Influence of Afrocentric Facial Features in Criminal Sentencing