Information processing in the cerebral cortex involves interactions among distributed areas. Anatomical connectivity suggests that certain areas form local hierarchical relations such as within the visual system. Other connectivity patterns, particularly among association areas, suggest the presence of large-scale circuits without clear hierarchical relations. In this study the organization of networks in the human cerebrum was explored using resting-state functional connectivity MRI. Data from 1,000 subjects were registered using surface-based alignment. A clustering approach was employed to identify and replicate networks of functionally coupled regions across the cerebral cortex. The results revealed local networks confined to sensory and motor cortices as well as distributed networks of association regions. Within the sensory and motor cortices, functional connectivity followed topographic representations across adjacent areas. In association cortex, the connectivity patterns often showed abrupt transitions between network boundaries. Focused analyses were performed to better understand properties of network connectivity. A canonical sensory-motor pathway involving primary visual area, putative middle temporal area complex (MT+), lateral intraparietal area, and frontal eye field was analyzed to explore how interactions might arise within and between networks. Results showed that adjacent regions of the MT+ complex demonstrate differential connectivity consistent with a hierarchical pathway that spans networks. The functional connectivity of parietal and prefrontal association cortices was next explored. Distinct connectivity profiles of neighboring regions suggest they participate in distributed networks that, while showing evidence for interactions, are embedded within largely parallel, interdigitated circuits. We conclude by discussing the organization of these large-scale cerebral networks in relation to monkey anatomy and their potential evolutionary expansion in humans to support cognition.

The organization of the human cerebral cortex estimated by intrinsic functional connectivity

Visual attention: The past 25 years

Modeling the role of salience in the allocation of overt visual attention.

Sustained and transient components of focal visual attention.

We examined a visual search task, in which observers responded to the high-acuity aspect of a popout target (shape of an odd-colored diamond or vernier offset of an odd spatial-frequency patch) Repetition of the attention-driving feature (color or spatial frequency) in this task primes the popout; repetition of the high-acuity aspect (shape, vernier offset) does not Priming of pop-out is due to a decaying memory trace of the attention-focusing feature laid down with each trial The trace exerts a diminishing effect over the following five to eight trials (≈30 sec), and its influence over this time is cumulative Observers cannot willfully overcome the priming, which suggests that it is passive and autonomous Both target facilitation and distractor inhibition are evident; the former has a greater effect The phenomenon shows complete binocular transfer

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03209251.pdf

Priming of pop-out: I. Role of features

Comparisons of the published data on the density D of receptive fields of retinal ganglion cells and on the cortical magnification factor M indicated that M2 is directly proportional to D in primates. Therefore, the human M can be estimated for the principal meridians of the visual field from the density-distribution of retinal ganglion cells and from the density of the centralmost cones. Using the previously published empirical data, we estimated the values of the human M and express the values in four simple equations that can be used for finding the value of M for any location of the visual field. The monocular values of M are not radially symmetric.

An estimation and application of the human cortical magnification factor

This study shows that photopic contrast sensitivity and resolution can be predicted by means of simple functions derived by using the cortical magnification factor M as a scale factor of mapping from the visual field into the striate cortex. We measured the minimum contrast required for discriminating the direction of movement or orientation of sinusoidal gratings, or for detecting them in central and peripheral vision. No qualitative differences were found between central and peripheral vision, and almost all quantitative differences observed could be removed by means of a size compensation derived from M. The results indicated specifically that (1) visual patterns can be made equally visible if they are scaled so that their calculated cortical representations become equivalent; (2) contrast sensitivity follows the same power function of the cortical area stimulated by a grating at any eccentricity; (3) area and squared spatial frequency are reciprocally related as determinants of contrast sensitivity; and (4) acuity and resolution are directly proportional to M, and the minimum angle of resolution is directly proportional to M-1. The power law of spatial summation expressed in (2) and (3) suggests the existence of a central integrator that pools the activity of cortical neurons. This summation mechanism makes the number of potentially activated visual cells the most important determinant of visibility and contrast sensitivity. The functional homogeneity of image processing across the visual field observed here agrees with the assumed anatomical and physiological uniformity of the visual cortex.

J. Rovamo

Papers

An estimation and application of the human cortical magnification factor

Visual resolution, contrast sensitivity, and the cortical magnification factor