This tutorial presents an overview of the technological advances in millimeter-wave (mm-wave) circuit components, antennas, and propagation that will soon allow 60-GHz transceivers to provide multigigabit per second (multi-Gb/s) wireless communication data transfers in the consumer marketplace. Our goal is to help engineers understand the convergence of communications, circuits, and antennas, as the emerging world of subterahertz and terahertz wireless communications will require understanding at the intersections of these areas. This paper covers trends and recent accomplishments in a wide range of circuits and systems topics that must be understood to create massively broadband wireless communication systems of the future. In this paper, we present some evolving applications of massively broadband wireless communications, and use tables and graphs to show research progress from the literature on various radio system components, including on-chip and in-package antennas, radio-frequency (RF) power amplifiers (PAs), low-noise amplifiers (LNAs), voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs), mixers, and analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). We focus primarily on silicon-based technologies, as these provide the best means of implementing very low-cost, highly integrated 60-GHz mm-wave circuits. In addition, the paper illuminates characterization techniques that are required to competently design and fabricate mm-wave devices in silicon, and illustrates effects of the 60-GHz RF propagation channel for both in-building and outdoor use. The paper concludes with an overview of the standardization and commercialization efforts for 60-GHz multi-Gb/s devices, and presents a novel way to compare the data rate versus power efficiency for future broadband devices.

http://faculty.poly.edu/~tsr/wp-content/uploads/publications/abstract17.pdf

State of the Art in 60-GHz Integrated Circuits and Systems for Wireless Communications

Turbulence properties of communication links (optical and microwave) in terms of log-amplitude variance are studied on the basis of a three-layer model of refractive index fluctuation spectrum in the free atmosphere. We suggest a model of turbulence spectra (Kolmogorov and non-Kolmogorov) changing with altitude on the basis of obtained experimental and theoretical data for turbulence profile in the troposphere and lower stratosphere.

Propagation of electromagnetic waves in Kolmogorov and non-Kolmogorov atmospheric turbulence: three-layer altitude model

A large aperture scintillometer (LAS) andradio wave scintillometer (RWS)were installed over a heterogeneous areato test the applicability of the scintillation methodThe heterogeneity in the area, whichconsisted of many plots, was mainly caused bydifferences in thermal properties ofthe crops; the variations in theaerodynamic roughness lengthwere small The water vapour fluxesderived from the combined LAS-RWSsystem, also known as the two-wavelengthmethod, agreed fairly well with the aggregatedwater vapour fluxes derived from in-situeddy covariance measurements The water vapourfluxes derived from a stand-alone LASare also presented It was found that a single LASand an estimate of the area averagedavailable energy (using a simple parameterisationscheme) can provide also reasonablearea-averaged water vapour fluxes

Determination of Area-Averaged Water Vapour Fluxes with Large Aperture and Radio Wave Scintillometers over a Heterogeneous Surface Flevoland Field Experiment

We calculated the probability distribution function (PDF) from simulations for an initially spherical wave propagated through homogeneous atmospheric turbulence. The onset of strong scintillation was calculated. By onset of strong scintillation, we mean conditions of weak scintillation changing to the condition of strong focusing. In addition, one case in the saturation regime was calculated. The simulations’ PDF’s are compared with several heuristic models of the PDF and are seen to progress from close to log normal for the cases of weakest scintillation to close to the log normally modulated exponential PDF (LNME PDF) for the cases of strong scintillation. The simulations’ PDF’s are not in agreement with the K PDF for any of the calculated cases. The best agreement was obtained in comparison with Beckmann’s PDF [P. Beckmann, Probability in Communication Engineering (Harcourt, Brace, & World, 1967)]. Beckmann’s PDF varies from being the log-normal PDF for weak scintillation to being the LNME PDF for strong scintillation and progresses further to the theoretically expected exponential PDF in the limit of saturated scintillation. We recommend that simulation be used to predict the irradiance PDF for plane and diverged waves in homogeneous turbulence in preference to using heuristic models. More complicated propagation cases remain in the domain of heuristic argumentation.

Probability distribution of irradiance for the onset of strong scintillation

The performance of a combined large aperture scintillometer (LAS) and a millimetre wave scintillometer (MWS) for estimating surface fluxes of sensible and latent heat over natural landscape is investigated, using data gathered during LITFASS-2003. For this purpose the LAS–MWS system was installed in a moderate heterogeneous landscape over a path length of 4.7 km with an effective beam height of 43 m. The derived surface fluxes have been compared with aggregated eddy-covariance (EC) measurements. The fluxes of sensible and latent heat from the LAS–MWS combination, as well as sensible heat fluxes of the single LAS, agreed fairly well with the EC-based fluxes, considering the uncertainties of the similarity stability functions and observed energy imbalance.

Scintillometer-Based Turbulent Fluxes of Sensible and Latent Heat Over a Heterogeneous Land Surface – A Contribution to Litfass-2003

Scintillations of intensity and phase difference were measured at millimeter wavelengths in a horizontally homogeneous atmospheric surface layer. Simultaneous micrometeorological and optical propagation measurements characterized the clear-air turbulence. Predicted and measured propagation statistics are in good agreement. It is shown that the phase structure function showed a rolloff at large spacings as was expected because the outer scale of the turbulence and log-intensity and phase difference are Gaussian random variables. The mutual coherence function is exp(-D/2) to great accuracy, where D is the sum of phase and log-amplitude structure functions. Estimating heat and humidity fluxes from intensity variances is shown to be valid. >

Turbulence-induced millimeter-wave scintillation compared with micrometeorological measurements

Results are presented from measurements of the effects of inclement weather on the fluctuations in amplitude and phase of millimeter-wave (MMW) signals propagated through the atmosphere. These measurements were made at frequencies near 116, 140, 173, and 230 GHz at a site near Champaign-Urbana, Illinois, in a community chosen for its exceptional flatness and lack of terrain features that might perturb the atmosphere. It was found that this inclement weather fluctuations are generally smaller than those observed in clear air under sunny conditions, and are also smaller than the corresponding effects observed at visible and near-infrared wavelengths. Rain has the greatest effect on MMW transmission, causing large, slow changes in received signal strength as a function of rain rate. It should also be noted that rain caused the only observed loss of the propagation link, during a thunderstorm in which the rain rate was as high as 60 mm/h. It is concluded that, in general, millimeter-wave radiation propagates well in adverse weather, with rain causing the major problems. >

J.T. Priestly

Papers

Turbulence-induced millimeter-wave scintillation compared with micrometeorological measurements

Fluctuations in millimeter-wave signals propagated through inclement weather