Introduction to Radiation Measurements What Is Meant by Radiation? Statistical Nature of Radiation Emission The Errors and Accuracy and Precision of Measurements Types of Errors Nuclear Instrumentation Statistical Errors of Radiation Counting Introduction Definition of Probability Basic Probability Theorems Probability Distributions and Random Variables Location Indexes (Mode, Median, Mean) Dispersion Indexes, Variance, and Standard Deviation Covariance and Correlation The Binomial Distribution The Poisson Distribution The Normal (Gaussian) Distribution The Lorentzian Distribution The Standard, Probable, and Other Errors The Arithmetic Mean and Its Standard Error Confidence Limits Propagation of Errors Goodness of Data-x2 Criterion-Rejection of Data The Statistical Error of Radiation Measurements The Standard Error of Counting Rates Methods of Error Reduction Minimum Detectable Activity Counter Dead-Time Correction and Measurement of Dead Time Review of Atomic and Nuclear Physics Introduction Elements of Relativistic Kinematics Atoms Nuclei Nuclear Binding Energy Nuclear Energy Levels Energetics of Nuclear Decays The Radioactive Decay Law Nuclear Reactions Fission Energy Loss and Penetration of Radiation through Matter Introduction Mechanisms of Charged-Particle Energy Loss Stopping Power Due to Ionization and Excitation Energy Loss Due to Bremsstrahlung Emission Calculation of dE/dx for a Compound or Mixture Range of Charged Particles Stopping Power and Range of Heavy Ions (Z > 2, A > 4) Interactions of Photons with Matter Interactions of Neutrons with Matter Gas-Filled Detectors Introduction Relationship between High Voltage and Charge Collected Different Types of Gas-Filled Detectors Ionization Chambers Proportional Counters Geiger-Muller Counters Gas-Flow Counters Rate Meters General Comments about Construction of Gas-Filled Detectors Scintillation Detectors Introduction Inorganic (Crystal) Scintillators Organic Scintillators Gaseous Scintillators The Relationship between Pulse Height and Energy and Type of Incident Particle The Photomultiplier Tube Assembly of a Scintillation Counter and the Role of Light Pipes Dead Time of Scintillation Counters Sources of Background in a Scintillation Counter The Phoswich Detector Semiconductor Detectors Introduction Electrical Classification of Solids Semiconductors The p-n Junction The Different Types of Semiconductor Detectors Radiation Damage to Semiconductor Detectors Relative and Absolute Measurements Introduction Geometry Effects Source Effects Detector Effects Relationship between Counting Rate and Source Strength Introduction to Spectroscopy Introduction Definition of Energy Spectra Measurement of an Integral Spectrum with a Single-Channel Analyzer (SCA) Measurement of a Differential Spectrum with an SCA The Relationship between Pulse-Height Distribution and Energy Spectrum Energy Resolution of a Detection System Determination of the Energy Resolution-The Response Function The Importance of Good Energy Resolution Brief Description of a Multichannel Analyzer (MCA) Calibration of an MCA Electronics Introduction Resistance, Capacitance, Inductance, and Impedance A Differentiating Circuit An Integrating Circuit Delay Lines Pulse Shaping Timing Coincidence-Anticoincidence Measurements Pulse-Shape Discrimination Preamplifiers Amplifiers Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC) Multiparameter Analyzers Data Analysis Methods Introduction Curve Fitting Interpolation Schemes Least-Squares Fitting Folding and Unfolding Data Smoothing Photon (Gamma-Ray and X-Ray) Spectroscopy Introduction Modes of Energy Deposition in the Detector Efficiency of X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Detectors: Definitions Detection of Photons with NaI(Tl) Scintillation Counters Detection of Gammas with Ge Detectors CdTe and HgI2 Detectors as Gamma Spectrometers Detection of X-Rays with a Si(Li) Detector Charged-Particle Spectroscopy Introduction Energy Straggling Electron Spectroscopy Alpha, Proton, Deuteron, and Triton Spectroscopy Heavy-Ion (Z > 2) Spectroscopy The Time-of-Flight Spectrometer Detector Telescopes (E dE/dx Detectors) Position-Sensitive Detectors Neutron Detection and Spectroscopy Introduction Neutron Detection by (n, Charged Particle) Reaction Fission Chambers Neutron Detection by Foil Activation Measurement of a Neutron Energy Spectrum by Proton Recoil Detection of Fast Neutrons Using Threshold Activation Reactions Neutron Energy Measurement with a Crystal Spectrometer The Time-of-Flight Method Compensated Ion Chambers Self-Powered Neutron Detectors (SPND) Concluding Remarks Activation Analysis Introduction Selection of the Optimum Nuclear Reaction Preparation of the Sample for Irradiation Sources of Radiation Irradiation of the Sample Counting of the Sample Analysis of the Results Sensitivity of Activation Analysis Interference Reactions Advantages and Disadvantages of the Activation Analysis Method Prompt Gamma Activation Analysis Neutron Depth Profile Neutron Radiography Health Physics Fundamentals Introduction Units of Exposure and Absorbed Dose The Relative Biological Effectiveness-The Dose Equivalent Dosimetry for Radiation External to the Body Dosimetry for Radiation Inside the Body Internal Dose Time Dependence-Biological Half-Life Biological Effects of Radiation Radiation Protection Guides and Exposure Limits Health Physics Instruments Proper Use of Radiation Applications of Radiation Detection Introduction Health Physics within Nuclear Power Plants and Radiological Facilities Portal Monitors and Passive Detection Interactive Radiation Detection Systems Unmanned Aerial Vehicles for Radiation Detection Coincidence and Anti-Coincidence Detection Systems Nuclear Medicine Detection of Nuclear Materials/Nonproliferation Issues Appendix A: Useful Constants and Conversion Factors Appendix B: Atomic Masses and Other Properties of Isotopes Appendix C: Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Sources Commonly Used Appendix D: Tables of Photon Attenuation Coefficients Appendix E: Table of Buildup Factor Constants Index Problems, Bibliography, and References appear at the end of each chapter.

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Measurement and detection of radiation

DISCLAIMER The use of company or product name(s) is for identification only and does not imply endorsement by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. A Toxicological Profile for cobalt, Draft for Public Comment was released in July 2001. This edition supersedes any previously released draft or final profile. Toxicological profiles are revised and republished as necessary. For information regarding the update status of previously released profiles, contact ATSDR at: vi Background Information The toxicological profiles are developed by ATSDR pursuant to Section 104(i) (3) and (5) of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA or Superfund) for hazardous substances found at Department of Energy (DOE) waste sites. CERCLA directs ATSDR to prepare toxicological profiles for hazardous substances most commonly found at facilities on the CERCLA National Priorities List (NPL) and that pose the most significant potential threat to human health, as determined by ATSDR and the EPA. ATSDR and DOE entered into a Memorandum of Understanding on November 4, 1992 which provided that ATSDR would prepare toxicological profiles for hazardous substances based upon ATSDR=s or DOE=s identification of need. The current ATSDR priority list of hazardous substances at DOE NPL sites was announced in the Toxicological Profiles are a unique compilation of toxicological information on a given hazardous substance. Each profile reflects a comprehensive and extensive evaluation, summary, and interpretation of available toxicologic and epidemiologic information on a substance. Health care providers treating patients potentially exposed to hazardous substances will find the following information helpful for fast answers to often-asked questions. Chapter 1: Public Health Statement: The Public Health Statement can be a useful tool for educating patients about possible exposure to a hazardous substance. It explains a substance's relevant toxicologic properties in a nontechnical, question-and-answer format, and it includes a review of the general health effects observed following exposure. Chapter 3: Health Effects: Specific health effects of a given hazardous compound are reported by type of health effect (death, systemic, immunologic, reproductive), by route of exposure, and by length of exposure (acute, intermediate, and chronic). In addition, both human and animal studies are reported in this section. NOTE: Not all health effects reported in this section are necessarily observed in the clinical setting. Please refer to the Public Health Statement to identify general health effects observed following exposure. The following additional material can be ordered through the ATSDR Information Center: Case Studies in …

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Toxicological profile for cobalt

A public health statement summarizes information about a hazardous substance. The information is taken from a toxicological profile developed by ATSDR’s Division of Toxicology and Human Health Sciences (DTHHS). A toxicological profile is a thorough review of a hazardous substance.This toxicological profile examines uranium. This public health statement summarizes the DTHHS findings on uranium, describes the effects of exposure to it, and describes what you can do to limit that exposure.

Toxicological profile for uranium

Foreword, Ohio State Senator D. Kucinich Introduction and Overview, V. Molak Theoretical Background of Risk Analysis Toxic Chemicals Noncancer Risk Analysis and U.S. Institutional Approaches to Risk Analysis, V. Molak Epidemiology and Cancer Risk Assessment, H. Gibb Uncertainty and Variability in Risk Analysis, R. Wilson and A. Shlyakhter Monte Carlo Risk Analysis Modeling, D. Vose An Overview of Probabilistic Risk Analysis for Complex Engineered Systems, V. Bier Ecological Risk Analysis, R. Lackey The Basic Economics of Risk Analysis, J. Swaney Applications of Risk Analysis Assessment of Residential Exposure to Chemicals, G. Whitmyre, J. Driver, and P.J. Hakkinen Pesticide Regulation and Human Health: The Role of Risk Assessment, J. Driver and G. Whitmyre Ionizing Radiation Risk Assessment, J. Alvarez Use of Risk Analysis in Pollution Prevention, V. Molak Integrated Risk Analysis of Global Climate Change, A. Shlyakhter and R. Wilson Computer Software Programs, Databases, and the Use of the Internet, World Wide Web, and Other On-Line Systems, B. Hakkinen Risk Perception, Law, Politics, and Risk Communication Risk Perception and Trust, P. Slovic The Insurability of Risks, H. Kunreuther and P. Freeman Setting Environmental Priorities Based on Risk, P. Deisler Comparative Risk Analysis: A Panacea or Risky Business? V. Molak Environmental Justice, R. Zimmerman Law and Risk Analysis in the United States, P.B. Hutt Science, Regulation, and Toxic Risk Assessment, H. Latin Risk Management Risk Management of the Nuclear Power Industry, B.J. Garrick Seismic Risk and Management in California, W. Dean Sustainable Management of Natural Disasters in Developing Countries, T. Lustig Risk Analysis, International Trade, and Animal Health, S.C. MacDiarmid Incorporating Tribal Cultural Interests and Treaty-Reserved Rights in Risk Management, B.L. Harper Global Use of Risk Analysis for Sustainable Development, V. Molak Conclusion, V. Molak Answers to Questions Glossary Index

Fundamentals of Risk Analysis and Risk Management

Radionuclide angiocardiography provides accurate hemodynamic information during maximal exercise in erect subjects. Cardiac function was studied with this noninvasive technique in 12 male and 6 female college athletes before (BT) and after (AT) 6 months of swimming training. Measurements at rest and during maximal exercise of heart rate, left ventricular ejection fraction, end-diastolic volume, cardiac output and total body blood volume were determined from first pass and equilibrium precordial counting techniques. The results were as follows: Heart Rate (beats/ min) Ejection Fraction (%) End-Diastolic Volume (ml) Cardiac Output (liters/ min) Total Body Blood Volume (liter) Rest BT 74 ± 11 73 ± 6 133 ± 35 6.9 ± 1.1 8.7 ± 0.8 AT 61 ± 7 67 ± 7 167 ± 40 6.7 ± 1.0 11.4 ± 2.2 Exercise BT 185 ± 10 87 ± 4 166 ± 34 25.5 ± 5.7 8.0 ± 0.9 AT 181 ± 14 86 ± 5 204 ± 39 32.0 ± 8.7 10.8 ± 2.3 Total body blood volume increased after training (p −4 ) and ejection fraction (p −3 ) was associated with an increase in end-diastolic volume (p −5 ). Cardiac output at maximal exercise increased (p −4 ) with a constant heart rate and ejection fraction. Individual variation was observed in the performance level achieved, and the maximal cardiac output at exercise achieved after training (56.6 liters/min) was attained by an Olympic athlete. Exercise training appears to enhance cardiac performance primarily by inducing cardiac dilatation.

Effects of exercise training on left ventricular function in normal subjects: a longitudinal study by radionuclide angiography.

Introduction to Health Physics

A scintillation counter permits the use of very low doses of I131-albumin in the recording of radiocardiograms. In the presence of mild heart failure there is a distinct widening of the interval between the humps derived from the right and left heart. Application of the principle of three-compartment serial dilution suggests that this prolongation may be due in large part to reduced cardiac output; however, cardiac dilatation may contribute significantly. Although radiocardiographic tracings represent time concentration curves, wide angle counting over the heart does not permit a reliable direct estimate of cardiac output. The chief source of error lies in the variable contribution of surrounding extracardiac tissue to the total activity which is recorded.

Analysis of the Radiocardiogram in Heart Failure

The development of a new method for scintillation detection of pericardial fluid is described. A model system is used in which heart and pericardium are simulated by a pair of readily distensible rubber balloons, one inside the other. Radioisotope scintillation scanning of the blood pools of the heart can best be performed by employing a scanning apparatus which affords a large, well-shielded thallium-activated Nal crystal, a focusing collimator, and a cathode-ray tube photographic printing system with circuits for modifying contrast and density. The 74 min biologic half life of I/sup 131/-labeled iodipamide (Cholografin) reduces greatly the radiation dose delivered to the patient and permits using tracers of the order of 750 μC, increasing the number of counts in the area of interest.

Radioisotope scanning in the detection of pericardial effusions.

The objective of this study was to determine patient dose distributions in the usual hypocycloidal tomographic techniques and then to investigate two means of reducing this dose. The effect of added filtration on both film quality and dose reduction was determined, and effects of selected organ shielding on patient dose were measured. It was determined that, despite some variation in film quality with filtration, it would not decrease the value of the procedures and would definitely decrease patient dose. Selective shields offer significant patient protection during tomography and should be used if they do not compromise the information sought.

Jack S. Krohmer

Papers

Introduction to Health Physics

Analysis of the Radiocardiogram in Heart Failure

Radioisotope scanning in the detection of pericardial effusions.

Patient Dose Distributions During Hypocycloidal Tomography

High-Energy Radiation Therapy Dosimetry