Although many scholars have pointed out problems in framing research, there has been very few systematic examinations of the published literature. To examine the common conceptual debates, the present study content analyzes framing literature from 93 peer-reviewed journals for a decade. Two methods were employed for the sample: First, every journal identified as a “communication journal” in the Journal Citation Report was included; second, keyword searches in electronic databases were used. The main findings showed that framing studies have concentrated more on message design and “unique” frames. Consistent with existing debates, results highlight the lack of research about production of frames and mixed frames. This examination of a decade's published literature reveals better direction for future research.

Conceptual Issues in Framing Theory: A Systematic Examination of a Decade's Literature

A meta-analysis considered 59 quantitative studies containing data concerned with partisan media bias in presidential election campaigns since 1948. Types of bias considered were gatekeeping bias, which is the preference for selecting stories from one party or the other; coverage bias, which considers the relative amounts of coverage each party receives; and statement bias, which focuses on the favorability of coverage toward one party or the other. On the whole, no significant biases were found for the newspaper industry. Biases in newsmagazines were virtually zero as well. However, meta-analysis of studies of television network news showed small, measurable, but probably insubstantial coverage and statement biases.

Media bias in presidential elections: a meta-analysis

The 2008 U.S. presidential election was historic on many levels. The country elected its first African American president who narrowly defeated a female candidate in the Democrat primary race. The Republicans nominated their first woman as a vice presidential candidate. Hillary Clinton and Sarah Palin demonstrated that women politicians have come a long way; however, an analysis of media coverage reveals that lingering sexism toward women candidates is still alive and well. Using common stereotypes of women in corporations developed by Rosabeth Moss Kanter, language theories, and media framing, this essay uncovers the common gendered stereotypes that surfaced in the 2008 campaign. The analysis indicates that there was a considerable amount of negative coverage of both candidates and that such coverage has potential to cast doubt on a woman's suitability to be commander-in-chief or in the wings.

Have You Come a Long Way, Baby? Hillary Clinton, Sarah Palin, and Sexism in 2008 Campaign Coverage

A large percentage of the public believes that the news media are biased, and the majority of these individuals consider the direction of bias to be against their own viewpoints. Past research has examined how individual factors such as strength of partisanship or extent of political involvement heighten bias perceptions, but little attention has been paid to interpersonal factors such as the ideological similarity or dissimilarity of personal communication networks. Results of a national survey show that perceptions of media bias were unrelated to the overall amount of discussion but were positively related to conversations with ideologically like-minded individuals. Moreover, the impact of conversations with similar others was stronger among Republicans than among Democrats, a finding consistent with recent work on news self-coverage of media bias claims.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/3792512.pdf

The Impact of Individual and Interpersonal Factors on Perceived News Media Bias

Visual symbols have long been a central component of political communication, and their importance has increased as the visual medium of television has become the dominant source of political information. Politicians understand the significance of visuals and work equally hard to construct effective image bites as they do powerful sound bites. In short, visual images play a central role in constructing political images. Despite their central position in political communication, scholars have historically overlooked visual symbols in their research. Based on a review of the growing and substantial literature, this study argues that it is time for political communication scholars to delve deeper into how visual symbols function in public affairs. To that end, this paper seeks to provide a theoretical and literature base to facilitate this change in focus and to suggest future avenues of research in this area.

The Visual Image and the Political Image: A Review of Visual Communication Research in the Field of Political Communication

Daily newspaper reporters in 1998 treated female and male gubernatorial candidates equitably in terms of the quantity of coverage. However, newspaper readers were more likely to read about a female candidate's personal traits, such as her appearance or personality, than those of a male candidate. By contrast, they were more likely to read about a male candidate's stand or record on public policy issues than about a female candidate's. Some of these differences disappeared after examining campaigns individually. Results indicate that differences in coverage were due to stories written by male reporters who covered gubernatorial campaigns.

Framing Gender on the Campaign Trail: Female Gubernatorial Candidates and the Press

This analysis compares newspaper coverage of Elizabeth Dole's presidential campaign with that of former Texas Governor George W. Bush, Arizona Senator John McCain, and publisher Steve Forbes. The authors examined three months of coverage in the Des Moines Register, the New York Times, the Los Angeles Times, USA Today, and the Washington Post. Dole received less coverage than did Bush, but more than McCain and Forbes. However, the authors found qualitative differences in coverage that they attributed to Dole's gender. Compared to her male opponents, Dole received less coverage on her positions on the issues but more coverage on her personal traits. The authors conclude that these differences were due to stories written by male reporters covering the 2000 presidential campaign. The authors also found that Dole was quoted in different ways when compared to her male opponents: she was directly quoted at a lower rate, while her speech was paraphrased at a higher rate.

Style over Substance: Newspaper Coverage of Elizabeth Dole's Presidential Bid:

This article presents results of a content analysis of photographs of Bill Clinton and Bob Dole appearing in five major newspapers during the last two months of the 1996 presidential campaign. Clin...

James Devitt

Papers

Framing Gender on the Campaign Trail: Female Gubernatorial Candidates and the Press

Style over Substance: Newspaper Coverage of Elizabeth Dole's Presidential Bid:

Newspaper Photographs and the 1996 Presidential Election: The Question of Bias