https://saludsindanio.org/sites/default/files/documents-files/151/Climate_Chg_Human_Health.pdf

Climate change and human health : present and future risks

The alphaviruses: gene expression, replication, and evolution.

LEARNING The objectives of BIOS 781 are to present: OBJECTIVES: 1. basic population and quantitative genetic principles, including classical genetics, chromosomal theory of inheritance, and meiotic recombination 2. an exposure to QTL mapping methods of complex quantitative traits and linkage methods to detect co-segregation with disease 3. methods for assessing marker-disease linkage disequilibrium, including case-control approaches 4. methods for genome-wide association and stratification control.

Genetic Data Analysis

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was
jointly established by the World Meteorological Organization
and the United Nations Environment Programme in 1988 to
assess the scientific and technical literature on climate change,
the potential impacts of changes in climate, and options for
adaption to and mitigation of climate change. Since its inception,
the IPCC has produced a series of Assessment Reports,
Special Reports, Technical Papers, methodologies and other
products which have become standard works of reference,
widely used by policymakers, scientists and other experts.
This Special Report, which has been produced by Working
Group II of the IPCC, builds on the Working Group's contribution
to the Second Assessment Report (SAR), and incorporates
more recent information made available since mid-1995.
It has been prepared in response to a request from the
Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice
(SBSTA) of the UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC). It addresses an important question posed
by the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC,
namely, the degree to which human conditions and the natural
environment are vulnerable to the potential effects of climate
change. The report establishes a common base of information
regarding the potential costs and benefits of climatic change,
including the evaluation of uncertainties, to help the COP
determine what adaptation and mitigation measures might be
justified. The report consists of vulnerability assessments for
10 regions that comprise the Earth's entire land surface and
adjoining coastal seas: Africa, Arid Western Asia (including the
Middle East), Australasia, Europe, Latin America, North
America, the Polar Regions (The Arctic and the Antarctic),
Small Island States, Temperate Asia and Tropical Asia. It also
includes several annexes that provide information about climate
observations, climate projections, vegetation distribution
projections and socioeconomic trends.

/pdf/the-regional-impacts-of-climate-change-an-assessment-of-49ii958car.pdf

The Regional Impacts of Climate Change: An Assessment of Vulnerability

General Aspects.- Systematics.- Biology of Mosquitoes.- Medical Importance of Mosquitoes.- Mosquito Research Techniques.- Morphology of Mosquitoes.- Identification Keys Morphology Ecology and Distribution of European Species.- Key to Female Mosquitoes.- Key to Male Mosquitoes.- Key to Mosquito Fourth Instar Larvae.- Subfamily Anophelinae.- Subfamily Culicinae.- Identification Keys, Morphology, Ecology and Distribution of Important Vector and Nuisance Species - Worldwide.- Africa.- Asia.- Australia.- Central and South America.- North America.- Control of Mosquitoes.- Biological Control.- Environmental Management of Mosquitoes.- Chemical Control.- Physical Control.- Genetic Control of Mosquitoes.- Personal Protection.- Implementation and Integration of Mosquito Control Measures.

Mosquitoes and their Control

If global warming occurs in California, daily mean temperatures may increase by 3 to 5 degrees C, precipitation patterns will change, and sea level may rise 1 m. Studies were done on effect of temperature changes on survival of Culex tarsalis Coquillett, the primary vector of western equine encephalomyelitis (WEE) and St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) viruses, in two regions where temperatures differed by 5 degrees C. Daily mortality of adult vectors increased by 1% for each 1 degree C increase in temperature. At 25 degrees C, only 5% of Cx. tarsalis survived for 8 or more days, the time required for extrinsic incubation of these viruses. Extrinsic incubation times for these viruses shortened when temperatures were increased from 18 to 25 degrees C. WEE virus infection was modulated and transmission decreased at 32 degrees C. If temperatures in the warmer region increase by 5 degrees C, WEE virus may disappear and SLE virus would persist. In the cooler region, a 5 degrees C increase would decrease vector survivorship and virus activity in midsummer. In North America, epidemics of WEE have prevailed above a 21 degrees C isotherm and those of SLE below this isotherm. With global warming, epidemics of these viruses could extend into currently unreceptive northern areas. WEE virus would disappear from more southern regions. Geographic distribution of vector, human, and animal populations could be altered. North America could become more receptive to invasion by tropical vectors and diseases.

Potential effect of global warming on mosquito-borne arboviruses.

There are two dose-dependent barriers to the transmission of western equine encephalomyelitis virus in infected female Culex tarsalis. In the first, virus multiplies in the mesenteron, but does not invade other tissues regardless of the length of extrinsic incubation. We call this the "mesenteronal escape" barrier. In some mosquitoes virus escapes from the infected mesenteron but a second barrier prevents infection of the salivary glands and perhaps neural tissues. We designate this the "salivary gland infection" barrier. The effectiveness of the second barrier decreases with time but still is evident after 21 days of extrinsic incubation. The distribution of virus in the tissues of nontransmitting females with either of these barriers is described.

Dissemination barriers for western equine encephalomyelitis virus in Culex tarsalis infected after ingestion of low viral doses.

The extrinsic incubation rate (inverse of the time in days from infection to median transmission) of western equine encephalomyelitis (WEE) and St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) viruses by laboratory strains of Culex tarsalis Coquillett increased as a linear function of incubation temperatures from 10 to 30 degrees C. The estimated temperatures for zero transmission thresholds (intercept of the X axis) were 10.9 and 14.9 degrees C, and the number of degree days above these thresholds required for median transmission (inverse of the slope) was 67.6 and 115.2, respectively. Although the bodies of most Cx. tarsalis females remained infected and the WEE viral titer did not decrease significantly throughout the incubation periods at all temperatures, transmission rates by females incubated at 20 to 30 degrees C decreased markedly after peaking at 7-10 d after infection. In contrast, midgut escape and salivary gland infection barriers limited the transmission rates of SLE virus at all temperatures, but these rates did not decrease markedly as a function of incubation time, indicating that virus modulation did not occur. Degree-day models were used to calculate monthly changes in the duration of the extrinsic incubation period for WEE and SLE viruses in the San Joaquin and Coachella valleys based on mosquito temperatures estimated by combining nocturnal air and diurnal resting site temperatures. Temperatures in the San Joaquin Valley averaged 5 degrees C cooler than in the Coachella Valley, proportionately shortening the duration of the potential transmission season for WEE virus from 10 to 8 mo and for SLE virus from 8 to 5 mo, respectively.

Effect of Temperature on the Transmission of Western Equine Encephalomyelitis and St. Louis Encephalitis Viruses by Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae)

Epidemiology and control of mosquito-borne arboviruses in California, 1943-1987.

Culex tarsalis was a less competent vector of western equine encephalomyelitis (WEE) virus after 2-3 weeks' extrinsic incubation at 32 degrees C than after incubation at 18 degrees or 25 degrees C The high temperature itself was not directly detrimental to mosquito infection as all mosquitoes were initially infected, but subsequently some females were able to limit viral multiplication and/or dissemination Elevated maintenance temperatures enhanced the expression of modulation, and elevated larval rearing temperatures selected for those females with this trait This is the first report of an inverse relationship between temperature of extrinsic incubation within the range of 25 degrees-32 degrees C and vector competence of a mosquito for an arbovirus

James L. Hardy

Papers

Potential effect of global warming on mosquito-borne arboviruses.

Dissemination barriers for western equine encephalomyelitis virus in Culex tarsalis infected after ingestion of low viral doses.

Effect of Temperature on the Transmission of Western Equine Encephalomyelitis and St. Louis Encephalitis Viruses by Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae)

Epidemiology and control of mosquito-borne arboviruses in California, 1943-1987.

Effect of temperature of extrinsic incubation on the vector competence of Culex tarsalis for western equine encephalomyelitis virus.