The IFSW recently adopted a new joint international de.nition of social work, together with the IASSW. The de.nition embraces both traditional social work activities and social development, and addresses social work knowledge, values and practice in an age of globalization. This article analyzes the concepts selected and explains their meaning and signi.cance for the profession.

Defining Social Work for the 21st Century: The International Federation of Social Workers' Revised Definition of Social Work

The twin pressures of containment and change have plagued social work since its origins in the late 19th century. The profession can boast of a long history of progressive activism directed to individual and social change. At the same time, observers within and outside social work have often accused the profession of serving as a handmaiden of the status quo. This contradiction has made the social work profession a site of ongoing struggle. Although often difficult, the battles the profession has endured have ensured that social work practice with individuals, families, groups, and communities is neither handed down from above nor written in stone. Rather, the design of social work as we know it reflects internal and external political struggles. The presence of this tension becomes critically important, because with it comes opportunity for change. The centennial gives occasion to celebrations, critical reviews, and future visions for the profession. In this spirit, this article reviews the history of activism in social work in a framework of the relationship between social work and social reform as an arena of struggle. Most histories of social work present the story chronologically. I use the history to bring the activist struggles in social work into bold relief. More specifically, I have developed three parallel narratives centered on social work as an arena of struggle: (1) the largely untold history of activism in the profession during the 20th century, (2) the effect of the process of professionalization on social work activism, and (3) the ways the changing political climate shaped the relationship between the profession of social work and its impulse for social reform. The Prochange Mandate in Social Work Social work's commitment to both individual and social change stems from at least three sources: (1) the mandates of our professional organizations, (2) the professional literature, and (3) the long history of activism among social workers themselves. Professional Mandates Since the mid-1960s both the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) and the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) have recognized social work's role in social reform. The 1994 CSWE Curriculum Policy Statement (CSWE, 1994) and the 1996 NASW Code of Ethics continue to call for action to improve social conditions as one way for social work to honor its primary obligation to individual and community welfare. Review of the Literature Many social worker scholars have articulated social work's commitment to social reform (Galper, 1975; Haynes & Mickelson, 1997; Mahaffey & Hanks, 1982; Withorn, 1984). "Systems," "transactional," "person-in-situation," "empowerment," and other practice theories emphasize the relationship between social conditions and the quality of life for individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities. The theories assume that individuals grow, change, and develop a sense of mastery best when they can gain self-insight, have real choices, and secure access to the resources and power needed to realize these goals. The theories recognize that communities thrive when governments promote individual and collective responsibility, equal opportunities, and social solidarity. In brief, social work scholarship suggests that, although a focus on individuals is critically important, it may not be enough (Payne, 1991; Simon, 1994). History of Activism The third foundation of social work's commitment to social reform stems from the long history of activism among social workers themselves. Social work activism has had many strands. As is the case in any large group of people, the politics of social workers range across the political spectrum. During the past 100 years, the most visible and documented activism of the organized profession has tended toward liberal reform. The goals of the activist members, however, have ranged from liberal to radical, leading to both collaboration and conflict. …

Social Work and Social Reform: An Arena of Struggle

Policy advocacy is widely regarded as an eminent feature of nonprofit organizations’ activities, allowing them to represent their constituencies. The article presents a literature review of researc...

Advocacy Activities of Nonprofit Human Service Organizations: A Critical Review

This study compares the effects of experiential learning on policy-related values, competency, and activity levels of two groups of recent MSW graduates from one university The study group received experiential service learning in the MSW program, primarily in an advanced policy course, while the comparison group did not The author explains experiential teaching and service learning methods, as well the activities included in the policy course Results indicate that both groups placed a high value on political skills However, the experiential group was significantly more likely to perceive themselves as competent policy practitioners and to perform policy-related activities after graduation

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Evaluating Experiential Teaching Methods in a Policy Practice Course: The Case for Service Learning to Increase Political Participation

This presentation posits a multidimensional formulation of community intervention, comprising nine variants of practice. It builds on this author's earlier threefold concept, but expands and elaborates it in cross-tab fashion. Accordingly, there is a breakout into three distinct forms respectively of social planning/policy practice, of capacity development, and of advocacy. Some of these modes are unidimensional and others combine strategic elements. Empirical examples of each mode are provided. These practice modes need not be seen as conflicting initiatives. Both rationalistic planning in formal organizations and participatory forms of grassroots problem solving have merits, which can be magnified when linked. A significant challenge for social development involves mixing the best features of laissez faire societies that emphasize voluntarism and freedom with the best features of more collectivist societies that emphasize system planning and equality.

Multi Modes of Intervention at the Macro Level

1. All Social Work is Political 2. Social Work Values versus Politics The Professional Code of Ethics Primary Principles: Social Justice and Empowerment Specialization versus Systemic Solutions Self-Determination versus Compromise Emotional Neutrality versus Client Self-Interest Impartiality versus Partisan Politics Conclusion Assignments Suggested Readings References 3. The Emergence of a Social Work Polity The Reform Period The New Deal and Beyond The War on Poverty Social Action Models Federalism The New Federalism The 1990s The George "Dubya" Bush Era Conclusion Assignments Suggested Readings References 4. The Debate Some Perspectives When Karen Met Harry: Unfaithful Angels Disputed Conclusion Assignments Suggested Readings References 5. Policy Models for Political Advocacy Models Defined Institutional Model Process Model Group Theory Model Elite Theory Model Rational Model Incremental Model A Proactive Approach to Policy Development Policy Analysis Policy Evaluation Effort Quality Effectiveness Efficiency Conclusion Assignments Suggested Readings References 6. The Practitioner's Influence on Policy Information Disseminiation Documentation Testimony Expert Witness Written Communication Client Empowerment Enabler/Advocate Role Evaluator/Consultant Role Voter Registration Hatch Act The Executive's Role in Influencing Policy Influencing Policy: An Illustration Conclusion Assignments Suggested Readings References 7. Influence Through Lobbying Social Work Skills in the Political Process The Political Process The Politician The Informal Political Process Lobbying Groundwork Goal Setting Strategy Setting Lobbying Methods Letter Writing Telephoning Face-to-Face Lobbying Testifying Lobbying and Nonprofits Conclusion Assignments Suggested Readings References 8. Tools to Influence and Organize Others Ten Phases of a Social Movement Strategy Coalition Building Technology Gimmicks Using the Media Newspapers Radio Television Examples of Organizing Others Conclusion Assignments Suggested Readings References 9. Monitoring the Bureaucracy Promulgating the Rules Rule Implementation and Agency Compliance Budget Allocations Administrative Changes or Executive Orders Social Work Skills Conclusion Assignments Suggested Readings References 10. Political Action Committees Why is a PAC Organized? Process of Selection Candidate Endorsements Targeting Fallout Idealism versus Winning Conclusion Assignments Suggested Readings References 11. The Campaign Components of the Campaign Time Money People Campaign Management The Campaign Manager: Who Really Runs the Campaign? Voter Contact Targeting Issues Social Workers and Campaigns What to Expect When Volunteering How to Volunteer for a Campaign Conclusion Assignments Suggested Readings References 12. Social Workers as Politicians Respondent Characteristics Deciding to Run Building a Constituent Base Campaigning Realities of Office Recommendations Conclusion Assignments Suggested Readings References 13. Jump In Where to Start Just Do It Do It Early People Influence People You Can Make a Difference Advocacy is Not for Wimps Speak Out Just Say No Conclusion Assignments Suggested Reading References Glossary of Legislative Terms Web Sites Index

Affecting Change: Social Workers in the Political Arena

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Social Work and the Reagan Era: Challenges to the Profession

In a time of diminishing resources for agencies, they can take advantage of the obvious compatibility between the staffing needs of information and referral agencies and the expectations for BSW field practicums. This article describes the functions and structure of the information and referral agency and details its advantages for the undergraduate social worker's education.

James S. Mickelson

Papers

Affecting Change: Social Workers in the Political Arena

Social Work and the Reagan Era: Challenges to the Profession

A Generalist Partnership: BSW Placement in an Information and Referral Agency

Information and Referral Agency