The complexity of flow and wide variety of depositional processes operating in subaqueous density flows, combined with post-depositional consolidation and soft-sediment deformation, often make it difficult to interpret the characteristics of the original flow from the sedimentary record. This has led to considerable confusion of nomenclature in the literature. This paper attempts to clarify this situation by presenting a simple classification of sedimentary density flows, based on physical flow properties and grain-support mechanisms, and briefly discusses the likely characteristics of the deposited sediments. Cohesive flows are commonly referred to as debris flows and mud flows and defined on the basis of sediment characteristics. The boundary between cohesive and non-cohesive density flows (frictional flows) is poorly constrained, but dimensionless numbers may be of use to define flow thresholds. Frictional flows include a continuous series from sediment slides to turbidity currents. Subdivision of these flows is made on the basis of the dominant particle-support mechanisms, which include matrix strength (in cohesive flows), buoyancy, pore pressure, grain-to-grain interaction (causing dispersive pressure), Reynolds stresses (turbulence) and bed support (particles moved on the stationary bed). The dominant particle-support mechanism depends upon flow conditions, particle concentration, grain-size distribution and particle type. In hyperconcentrated density flows, very high sediment concentrations (>25 volume%) make particle interactions of major importance. The difference between hyperconcentrated density flows and cohesive flows is that the former are friction dominated. With decreasing sediment concentration, vertical particle sorting can result from differential settling, and flows in which this can occur are termed concentrated density flows. The boundary between hyperconcentrated and concentrated density flows is defined by a change in particle behaviour, such that denser or larger grains are no longer fully supported by grain interaction, thus allowing coarse-grain tail (or dense-grain tail) normal grading. The concentration at which this change occurs depends on particle size, sorting, composition and relative density, so that a single threshold concentration cannot be defined. Concentrated density flows may be highly erosive and subsequently deposit complete or incomplete Lowe and Bouma sequences. Conversely, hydroplaning at the base of debris flows, and possibly also in some hyperconcentrated flows, may reduce the fluid drag, thus allowing high flow velocities while preventing large-scale erosion. Flows with concentrations <9% by volume are true turbidity flows (sensuBagnold, 1962), in which fluid turbulence is the main particle-support mechanism. Turbidity flows and concentrated density flows can be subdivided on the basis of flow duration into instantaneous surges, longer duration surge-like flows and quasi-steady currents. Flow duration is shown to control the nature of the resulting deposits. Surge-like turbidity currents tend to produce classical Bouma sequences, whose nature at any one site depends on factors such as flow size, sediment type and proximity to source. In contrast, quasi-steady turbidity currents, generated by hyperpycnal river effluent, can deposit coarsening-up units capped by fining-up units (because of waxing and waning conditions respectively) and may also include thick units of uniform character (resulting from prolonged periods of near-steady conditions). Any flow type may progressively change character along the transport path, with transformation primarily resulting from reductions in sediment concentration through progressive entrainment of surrounding fluid and/or sediment deposition. The rate of fluid entrainment, and consequently flow transformation, is dependent on factors including slope gradient, lateral confinement, bed roughness, flow thickness and water depth. Flows with high and low sediment concentrations may co-exist in one transport event because of downflow transformations, flow stratification or shear layer development of the mixing interface with the overlying water (mixing cloud formation). Deposits of an individual flow event at one site may therefore form from a succession of different flow types, and this introduces considerable complexity into classifying the flow event or component flow types from the deposits.

The physical character of subaqueous sedimentary density flows and their deposits

https://notendur.hi.is/oi/PDF%20reprints/Svendsen%20et%20al%20-%20Late%20Quaternary%20ice%20sheet%20history%20of%20northern%20Eurasia.pdf

Late quaternary ice sheet history of northern Eurasia

The International Bathymetric Chart of the Arctic Ocean (IBCAO) released its first gridded bathymetric compilation in 1999. The IBCAO bathymetric portrayals have since supported a wide range of Arc ...

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The International Bathymetric Chart of the Arctic Ocean (IBCAO) Version 3.0

We present a new time-slice reconstruction of the Eurasian ice sheets (British–Irish, Svalbard–Barents–Kara Seas and Scandinavian) documenting the spatial evolution of these interconnected ice sheets every 1000 years from 25 to 10 ka, and at four selected time periods back to 40 ka. The time-slice maps of ice-sheet extent are based on a new Geographical Information System (GIS) database, where we have collected published numerical dates constraining the timing of ice-sheet advance and retreat, and additionally geomorphological and geological evidence contained within the existing literature. We integrate all uncertainty estimates into three ice-margin lines for each time-slice; a most-credible line, derived from our assessment of all available evidence, with bounding maximum and minimum limits allowed by existing data. This approach was motivated by the demands of glaciological, isostatic and climate modelling and to clearly display limitations in knowledge. The timing of advance and retreat were both remarkably spatially variable across the ice-sheet area. According to our compilation the westernmost limit along the British–Irish and Norwegian continental shelf was reached up to 7000 years earlier (at c. 27–26 ka) than the eastern limit on the Russian Plain (at c. 20–19 ka). The Eurasian ice sheet complex as a whole attained its maximum extent (5.5 Mkm2) and volume (~24 m Sea Level Equivalent) at c. 21 ka. Our continental-scale approach highlights instances of conflicting evidence and gaps in the ice-sheet chronology where uncertainties remain large and should be a focus for future research. Largest uncertainties coincide with locations presently below sea level and where contradicting evidence exists. This first version of the database and time-slices (DATED-1) has a census date of 1 January 2013 and both are available to download via the Bjerknes Climate Data Centre and PANGAEA (www.bcdc.no; http://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.848117).

The last Eurasian ice sheets - a chronological database and time-slice reconstruction, DATED-1

Submarine sediment density flows are one of the most important processes for moving sediment across our planet, yet they are extremely difficult to monitor directly. The speed of long run-out submarine density flows has been measured directly in just five locations worldwide and their sediment concentration has never been measured directly. The only record of most density flows is their sediment deposit. This article summarizes the processes by which density flows deposit sediment and proposes a new single classification for the resulting types of deposit. Colloidal properties of fine cohesive mud ensure that mud deposition is complex, and large volumes of mud can sometimes pond or drain-back for long distances into basinal lows. Deposition of ungraded mud (TE-3) most probably finally results from en masse consolidation in relatively thin and dense flows, although initial size sorting of mud indicates earlier stages of dilute and expanded flow. Graded mud (TE-2) and finely laminated mud (TE-1) most probably result from floc settling at lower mud concentrations. Grain-size breaks beneath mud intervals are commonplace, and record bypass of intermediate grain sizes due to colloidal mud behaviour. Planar-laminated (TD) and ripple cross-laminated (TC) non-cohesive silt or fine sand is deposited by dilute flow, and the external deposit shape is consistent with previous models of spatial decelerating (dissipative) dilute flow. A grain-size break beneath the ripple cross-laminated (TC) interval is common, and records a period of sediment reworking (sometimes into dunes) or bypass. Finely planar-laminated sand can be deposited by low-amplitude bed waves in dilute flow (TB-1), but it is most likely to be deposited mainly by high-concentration near-bed layers beneath high-density flows (TB-2). More widely spaced planar lamination (TB-3) occurs beneath massive clean sand (TA), and is also formed by high-density turbidity currents. High-density turbidite deposits (TA, TB-2 and TB-3) have a tabular shape consistent with hindered settling, and are typically overlain by a more extensive drape of low-density turbidite (TD and TC,). This core and drape shape suggests that events sometimes comprise two distinct flow components. Massive clean sand is less commonly deposited en masse by liquefied debris flow (DCS), in which case the clean sand is ungraded or has a patchy grain-size texture. Clean-sand debrites can extend for several tens of kilometres before pinching out abruptly. Up-current transitions suggest that clean-sand debris flows sometimes form via transformation from high-density turbidity currents. Cohesive debris flows can deposit three types of ungraded muddy sand that may contain clasts. Thick cohesive debrites tend to occur in more proximal settings and extend from an initial slope failure. Thinner and highly mobile low-strength cohesive debris flows produce extensive deposits restricted to distal areas. These low-strength debris flows may contain clasts and travel long distances (DM-2), or result from more local flow transformation due to turbulence damping by cohesive mud (DM-1). Mapping of individual flow deposits (beds) emphasizes how a single event can contain several flow types, with transformations between flow types. Flow transformation may be from dilute to dense flow, as well as from dense to dilute flow. Flow state, deposit type and flow transformation are strongly dependent on the volume fraction of cohesive fine mud within a flow. Recent field observations show significant deviations from previous widely cited models, and many hypotheses linking flow type to deposit type are poorly tested. There is much still to learn about these remarkable flows.

Subaqueous sediment density flows: Depositional processes and deposit types

Late Weichselian and Holocene behavior of the Greenland Ice Sheet in the Kejser Franz Josef Fjord system, NE Greenland

Controlling factors for slope instability in a seismically active region: The NW-Svalbard continental margin

The Bear Island Trough Mouth Fan is situated in front of the Bear Island Trough in the western Barents Sea. The fan extends from the shelf break to water depths greater than 3,000 m and covers an area of approximately 215,000 km2 (Fig. 1). The late Weichselian glacigenic debris flow deposits on the Bear Island TMF can be followed from the upper fan downslope to ca. 2,500 m water depth (Vogt et al. 1993) and the largest cover an area of 1,880 km2 (Laberg and Vorren 1995). Our objective is to elucidate aspects of the flow behaviour of these large subaqueous debris flows on a low angle slope (<1°). 
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Fig. 1.
Bathymetric may showing the location of the Bear Island Trough Mouth Fan and the area shown in Fig. 2a–f

Submarine Glacigenic Debris Flows on the Bear Island Trough Mouth Fan, Western Barents Sea: Aspects of Flow Behaviour

Based on industry 3-dimensional seismic data, covering an area of 2,190 km2 of the continental slope offshore mid-Norway, the frontal part of glacigenic debris flow deposits have been studied. The debris flows are up to 6 km wide, 60 m thick and have a length of more than 40 km. Time-slices show that their frontal part is characterized by a zone of front-parallel lineations. The individual lineations are up to some tens of meters wide and they can be followed for several kilometers. In the seismic lines these lineations correspond to dipping reflections, probably formed by sediment compression and thrusting during the final stage of flow. Compression and thrusting implies a surging flow behavior, previously reported from experimental studies of hydroplaning. Thus a surging behavior of the studied flows is inferred to be related to the process of hydroplaning which may lead to surge due to acceleration and detachment of the frontal part from the rest of the flow. Hydroplaning also explains the long run-out of these flows.

A Surging Behaviour of Glacigenic Debris Flows

The Norwegian continental margin has been shaped largely by glacial processes during the last c. 2.7 Ma, including high inputs of glacigenic sediments particularly beyond the mouths of ice streams (e.g. Dahlgren et al. 2005). The Lofoten Islands are located between 68° N and 69° N, west of the former Fennoscandian Ice Sheet that covered most of Scandinavia during glacial times (Fig. 1). The supply of glacigenic sediments to the continental slope west of the Lofoten Islands was relatively low because the alpine relief of the islands acted as a barrier guiding the large westward-flowing palaeo-ice streams draining the ice sheet to the shelf edge both south and north of the Lofoten Islands (e.g. Laberg et al. 2002; Fig. 1b). Sediment input to the continental margin west of the Lofoten Islands has been dominated by contour currents. This led to the development of the Lofoten Drift (Laberg et al. 1999). The drift sediments were deposited mainly during glacial maxima, and have been affected by several submarine mass movements occurring on the middle to lower slope in water depths of 1100–2500 m (Baeten et al. 2013). These failures have volumes of 0.06–8.7 …

Jan Sverre Laberg

Papers

Late Weichselian and Holocene behavior of the Greenland Ice Sheet in the Kejser Franz Josef Fjord system, NE Greenland

Controlling factors for slope instability in a seismically active region: The NW-Svalbard continental margin

Submarine Glacigenic Debris Flows on the Bear Island Trough Mouth Fan, Western Barents Sea: Aspects of Flow Behaviour

A Surging Behaviour of Glacigenic Debris Flows

Submarine mass movements affecting contourites on the continental slope offshore of the Lofoten Islands, North Norway