The aim of this study is to examine the history of use of marine resources as well as historical changes in efforts towards their conservation in Zanzibar from the nineteenth century up to the present period More specifically, the study identifies important periods and dynamics in use and conservation of marine resources in Zanzibar from the 1840s up to the 2000s, with special attention to mangroves as well as fish For its empirical analysis, the study takes up several general terms and explanatory concepts from debates about conservation, environmental history and the commons with regard to Africa, including external influences such as colonialism and globalisation
Empirical analysis yielded the following key findings: Firstly, significant changes in the use of marine resources, notably fish and mangroves, started as early as the 1840s with the expansion of clove plantation economy and the development of Zanzibar town Secondly, by that time, local communities in Zanzibar already had established practices of conserving marine resources They used, for instance, periodical closing and opening of mangrove forests for cutting, and also of fishing areas for fishing, which had conservation effects Wavyale (local leaders who were also mediators in fishing and land use issues in Zanzibar) in collaboration with Watu Wanne, the “(council of) four elders,” led and supervised such activities However, such practices came under pressure through socio-economic changes already in the late pre-colonial period
Thirdly, pressure on marine resources considerably increased during the colonial period One significant factor for that was expansion of an export market for mangrove barks in Europe and America in the 1930s, which was further stimulated by the Second World War from 1939 and thus caused mangrove forest degradation Fourthly, another factor was concentration on artisanal inshore fishing, which had started long before, but continued while catches increased considerably during the British colonial period Even government research efforts concentrated on inshore fishing during that period, rather than opening new avenues for offshore fisheries, thereby contributing to a degradation of the fishing environment and a decrease in fish stock including size as well as to a disappearance of some fish types 
Fifth, the Zanzibar policy of socialism between 1964 and the 1970s contributed to other changes in use of marine resources, especially fish, on the islands Thus, nationalisation of fishing firms weakened the fishing sector because of an ineffective functioning of large scale fishing towards the possibility of expanding fishing to off-shore areas Sixth, with liberalisation policies in recent years, there has been a marked increase in fishing efforts in Zanzibar Parallel to this, the government's new policies of community-based marine conservation have in practice resulted to an increase in alternative employments for fishermen rather than in actual successes in the conservation of fish resources Seventh, the study…

The History of Use and Conservation of Marine Resources in Zanzibar : Nineteenth Century to the Present

Cooperatives contribute significantly to economic and social development in virtually all countries of the world. Their documented resilience to crisis and thus sustainability, and their particularity of being principles based enterprises that are member controlled and led are increasingly drawing the attention of governments, policy-makers and citizens around the world. The fact that cooperatives serve their members and as such balance the need for profitability with the needs of their members makes them different from stock companies and thus requires laws that recognize their specificities.

The ILO has played a key role in providing guidance and advice on the creation of enabling environments for cooperative development at national, regional and international levels. In the mid-1990s it first commissioned the elaboration of guidelines for cooperative legislation to fill the gap of information on how to draft a cooperative law and policy. In 2005 a second edition was produced to provide information on two new international instruments on cooperatives – the United Nations Guidelines aimed at creating a supportive environment for the development of cooperatives, and the 2002 ILO Recommendation No. 193 on the promotion of cooperatives. 
This new third edition has been produced to incorporate more new developments that impact how cooperative law is being developed. These new developments are multiple and include a general trend in the harmonization of law, the emergence of international regulations which directly impact enterprises, new regional cooperative legislation and regional framework laws as well as innovation in the cooperative form of enterprise itself. 
These guidelines are a contribution to fulfilling the aims of the United Nations International Year of Cooperatives celebrated in 2012 and its follow-up.

This book is published jointly by the ILO and the Committee for the Promotion and Advancement of Cooperatives (COPAC).

Guidelines for cooperative legislation, third revised edition

This article argues that good governance is a key component of the co-operative contribution to poverty reduction. It reports on fieldwork findings in Kenya, which compares a co-operative with strong governance processes with one facing a number of governance challenges. It concludes that good governance allows processes (or activities) within co-operatives to be undertaken more effectively, impacting poverty outcomes at the village level. This has important policy implications, particularly for the way in which governments and development agencies work with co-operatives. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Good co-operative governance: the elephant in the room with rural poverty reduction

With 2011 designated the United Nations Year of the Youth and 2012 the Year of the Co-operative this research contributes to issues raised by these two significant and timely events. The renaissance of co-operatives globally and their revival in countries in Africa has promoted interest and debate around co-operatives as collective values-based businesses and their potential to promote economic and social development and address poverty (UN, 2010). There is also increasing recognition that youth in Africa present both a potential and a challenge for development (UN, 2011). Youth access to education, civic participation and the ability to secure and sustain livelihoods are core concerns. Initiatives to involve youth in co-operatives in Lesotho and Uganda bring these two areas together and are of particular interest. The focus of this thesis is whether and how co-operatives provide opportunities for youth learning and the development of their capabilities and agency to achieve valued goals. The analysis is framed through conceptualisation of co-operatives as learning spaces within which theories of situated , learning are combined with the capability approach. Using qualitative and participatory methods to investigate youth engagement in co-operatives in Lesotho and Uganda the thesis argues that co- operatives provide situated social learning spaces where youth learn for development. Learning emerges within such spaces for: business and vocational knowledge and skills, personal development, collective learning based on trust and co-operator identity, and wider outcomes such as community engagement, enhanced relationships and networks and development of the co- operative form. Learning is, however, both enabled and restricted by: gender, the level of prior formal education, the networks of which a co-operative is a part and the type and success of a co-operative.

Learning for development through co-operation: the engagement of youth with co-operatives in Lesotho and Uganda

The impact of saving and credit cooperatives on food security in the West Amhara Region of Ethiopia Author(s) Ayele, Zemen Ayalew Publication date 2014 Original citation Ayele, Z.A. 2014. The impact of saving and credit cooperatives on food security in the West Amhara Region of Ethiopia. PhD Thesis, University College Cork. Type of publication Doctoral thesis Rights © 2014, Zemen Ayalew Ayele http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/

The impact of saving and credit cooperatives on food security in the West Amhara Region of Ethiopia

Investigates to what extent the policy and legal framework in the countries of East and Southern Africa enables cooperatives to meet the challenges of globalization, and fulfill their potential. To do so it compares the policy and legislation of various countries within the region with the provisions of the ILO's Promotion of Cooperatives Recommendation, 2002 (no.193)

Jan Theron

Papers

Working Paper No. 18 - Cooperative policy and lawin east and southern Africa:A review