The consumption of figs (the fruit of Ficus spp.; Moraceae) by vertebrates is reviewed using data from the literature, unpublished accounts and new field data from Borneo and Hong Kong. Records of frugivory from over 75 countries are presented for 260 Ficus species (approximately 30% of described species). Explanations are presented for geographical and taxonomic gaps in the otherwise extensive literature. In addition to a small number of reptiles and fishes, 1274 bird and mammal species in 523 genera and 92 families are known to eat figs. In terms of the number of species and genera of fig-eaters and the number of fig species eaten we identify the avian families interacting most with Ficus to be Columbidae, Psittacidae, Pycnonotidae, Bucerotidae, Sturnidae and Lybiidae. Among mammals, the major fig-eating families are Pteropodidae, Cercopithecidae, Sciuridae, Phyllostomidae and Cebidae. We assess the role these and other frugivores play in Ficus seed dispersal and identify fig-specialists. In most, but not all, cases fig specialists provide effective seed dispersal services to the Ficus species on which they feed. The diversity of fig-eaters is explained with respect to fig design and nutrient content, phenology of fig ripening and the diversity of fig presentation. Whilst at a gross level there exists considerable overlap between birds, arboreal mammals and fruit bats with regard to the fig species they consume, closer analysis, based on evidence from across the tropics, suggests that discrete guilds of Ficus species differentially attract subsets of sympatric frugivore communities. This dispersal guild structure is determined by interspecific differences in fig design and presentation. Throughout our examination of the fig-frugivore interaction we consider phylogenetic factors and make comparisons between large-scale biogeographical regions. Our dataset supports previous claims that Ficus is the most important plant genus for tropical frugivores. We explore the concept of figs as keystone resources and suggest criteria for future investigations of their dietary importance. Finally, fully referenced lists of frugivores recorded at each Ficus species and of Ficus species in the diet of each frugivore are presented as online appendices. In situations where ecological information is incomplete or its retrieval is impractical, this valuable resource will assist conservationists in evaluating the role of figs or their frugivores in tropical forest sites.

Fig-eating by vertebrate frugivores: a global review.

In the foreseeable future there is little likelihood of achieving consensus on the number of Asian primate genera and species, and their subspecific composition. There is a more realistic hope of reaching agreement on the number of recognizable subspecies. The latter objective is more urgent because in order to reliably assess generic and specific numbers, it is essential that effective conservation measures are implemented for as many subspecies as possible. This cannot be comprehensively accomplished until their validity is assessed and they are satisfactorily established and defined. The Asian primate classification that we present is the outcome of electronic communication among the co-authors after a workshop, which was especially convened to attempt to determine the number of recognizable primate subspecies and to identify potentially recognizable subspecies. The generic and specific arrangement is a compromise that does not necessarily reflect the individual views of the co-authors: 183 subspecies in 77 species in 16 genera. The 31 subspecies allotted a low credibility rating are almost balanced by the 22 scientifically unnamed populations that may warrant subspecific status.

Asian primate classification

Current knowledge of frugivory and seed dispersal by vertebrates in the Oriental Region is summarized. Some degree of frugivory has been reported for many fish and reptile species, almost half the genera of non-marine mammals and more than 40% of bird genera in the region. Highly frugivorous species, for which fruit dominates the diet for at least part of the year, occur in at least two families of reptiles, 12 families of mammals and 17 families of birds. Predation on seeds in fleshy fruits is much less widespread taxonomically: the major seed predators are colobine monkeys and rodents among the mammals, and parrots, some pigeons, and finches among the birds. Most seeds in the Oriental Region, except near its northern margins, are dispersed by vertebrate families which are endemic to the region or to the Old World. Small fruits and large, soft fruits with many small seeds are consumed by a wide range of potential seed dispersal agents, including species which thrive in small forest fragments and degraded landscapes. Larger, bigger-seeded fruits are consumed by progressively fewer dispersers, and the largest depend on a few species of mammals and birds which are highly vulnerable to hunting, fragmentation and habitat loss.

Frugivory and seed dispersal by vertebrates in the Oriental (Indomalayan) Region

"Squirrels of the World", written by scientists with more than 100 years of collective experience studying these popular mammals, is the first comprehensive examination of all 285 species of squirrels worldwide. The authors reveal virtually every detail of the family Sciuridae, which includes ground squirrels, tree squirrels, flying squirrels, prairie dogs, and chipmunks. Each species-from the familiar gray squirrel of American backyards to the exotic and endangered woolly flying squirrel of Pakistan-is described in a detailed account that includes distinguishing characteristics, ecology, natural history, conservation status, and current threats to its existence. "Squirrels of the World" includes: stunning color photographs that document rare and unusual squirrels as well as common varieties; evolution, morphology, ecology, and conservation status; colorful range maps marking species distribution; images of the skull of each genus of squirrel; and extensive references.

Squirrels of the World

Selective logging and wildlife conservation in tropical rain-forest: Problems and recommendations

During 2 years spent conducting ecological fieldwork on Siberut, the largest and most northerly of the four Mentawai Islands in Indonesia, incidental observations were made of the Mentawai macaque. The Mentawai macaque has been considered variously as a full species similar in some respects to the long-tailed macaque and as a subspecies of the pig-tailed macaque. Evidence is presented that a hitherto undescribed form of the Mentawai macaque occurs on Siberut, and aspects of its ecology and behavior are described.

Preliminary observations of the Mentawai macaque on Siberut Island, Indonesia

Reduced species diversity on islands is well documented The present paper examines the ecological separation of diurnal squirrels on Siberut Island, Indonesia, and contrasts the results with those of studies on the neighbouring mainland

Ecological separation of three diurnal squirrels in tropical rainforest on Siberut Island, Indonesia

Although bark eating is quite common among mammals, few species include it as a major item in their diet. The diet of the small squirrel Sundasciurus lowii on Siberut Island, Indonesia, consists mainly of bark. Physical characteristics, nutrient concentrations, and the presence of defense compounds were investigated in bark from 711, 13, and 57 food and nonfood trees, respectively. The results suggest that the squirrels select bark on large, smooth-barked trees with low levels of hydrolysable tannins, whereas concentrations of fat, crude protein, crude fibre, carbohydrate, and calorific value examined in a set of bark samples had no detectable influence on food tree selection. FEEDING ON BARK IS WIDESPREAD AMONG MAMMALS although none has been reported to consume bark to the exclusion of more nutritious items like fruit, herbs, seeds, or grasses. Bark has been recorded as an item in the diet of orangutans (Rijksen 1978), elephants (Hubback 1941, Olivier 1978), rhinoceros (Hubback 1939, Strien 1974), rabbits (Thompson & Worden 1956), squirrels (MacKinnon 1978, Payne 1979, Farentinos et al. 1981), and many species of deer. In the majority of cases, however, no attempt has been made to analyze the physical or chemical features important in bark selection. A study of the ecological separation of three species of diurnal squirrels on Siberut Island, Indonesia (J. Whitten 1981), found that a major food type in the diet of one small species, Sundasciurus lowii (total length, 23 cm), was bark (an average 49% of stomach contents and over 90% of food trees). It was never observed to eat fruit, and stomach analyses revealed that animal remains occupied an average of only 39 percent of the stomachs' volume. S. lowii does not strip bark from large areas in the same way as do common red and grey squirrels, but removes only small flakes, even from trees whose bark would easily strip. Bark is not carried away from the tree and used in nest building, nor has any evidence been found that this behavior is associated with intraspecific aggression. None of the food trees (either trees on which we saw S. lowii feeding or those whose bark showed clear signs of squirrel feeding) produced sap, and no evidence pointed to squirrels' seeking exudates to feed upon (cf. I Received 7 November 1984, revision received 12 December 1985, accepted 8 January 1986. 2 Present address: School for Resource and Environmental Studies, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Lacher et al. 1984). Thus, all bark removal seems to be associated with feeding. This paper describes an analysis of bark and bark eating by S. lowii. METHODS AND MATERIALS Diurnal squirrels were studied on Siberut Island, 100 km west of West Sumatra, for a total of 12 mo during 1976 and 1977. The study area has been described by J. Whitten (1981) and A. Whitten (1982a, b), and the general methods of squirrel observation have been described by J. Whitten (1981). In order to investigate the selection of bark food trees by S. lowii, the following data were recorded from all trees of at least 5 cm DBH in four 0.25ha plots and from all known food trees: species, girth, tree height, canopy height (distance from lowest major bough to topmost leaves), canopy width, bark roughness on a scale of 1 (smooth) to 7 (very rough), thicknesses of the outer bark (that which could be split away from the inner bark) and of inner bark, and ease with which the outer bark could be split away from the inner bark (easy or difficult). In addition, signs of feeding on bark (Fig. 1) and presence of moss, lichen, and climbers were estimated on a scale of 0 (none present) to 3 (very abundant). Similarly, the ease of access for a squirrel from the surrounding vegetation was judged on a scale of 0 (impossible without coming to the ground) to 3 (possible with great ease). Bark samples were dried initially in an oven over an oil lamp for 2 days, after which the samples were taken to the mainland to be dried in an open gas oven for 2 more days. Although we assumed that all signs of bark feeding were made by S. lowii, other species may have contributed. BIOTROPICA 19(2): 107-115 1987 107 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.247 on Wed, 27 Apr 2016 06:49:50 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Analysis of bark eating in a tropical squirrel

The Indonesian Archipelago consists of over 13,000 islands forming a grand link between Asia and Australia. This single country contains a wondrous diversity of natural features - vast rainforests and swamps, huge and savannahs, the largest collection of active volcanoes on earth, coral reefs, and even glaciers - and a rich variety of plant and animal life, including many species found nowhere else."Wild Indonesia "introduces the natural wealth of this remarkable land. Its comprehensive text was written by two naturalists who have spent many years studying and writing about the country's ecology, while its 400 stunning photographs were taken especially for the book by one of the world's leading natural history photographers.The text starts with an overview of the land and people of Indonesia and an introduction to its particular conservation problems. It then focuses in turn on each of the country's regions: Sumatra, Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), Java and Bali, Sulawesi, the Moluccas and Lesser Sundas, and Irian Jaya (Indonesian New Guinea). Special attention is given to natural parks and reserves. Each region is described in detail, and the text is accompanied by maps and illustrations of landscapes, mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, and the country's exquisite flora, including its fabulous orchids. Species are all shown in their natural habitat, emphasizing clearly the interdependence of all forms of life.Tony and Jane Whitten have spent much of the last sixteen years in Indonesia. They are currently based in Bali and working on a detailed study of the ecology of Java and Bali; their previous books include ecological studies of Sumatra and Sulawesi, "Asian Animals in Danger, The Gibbons of Siberut, "and "The Freshwater Fishes of Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and Sulawesi. "Gerald Cubitt provided all of the photographs for "Wild Indonesia, "as he has for the companion volumes "Wild Malaysia "and "Wild India."

Jane Whitten

Papers

Preliminary observations of the Mentawai macaque on Siberut Island, Indonesia

Ecological separation of three diurnal squirrels in tropical rainforest on Siberut Island, Indonesia

Analysis of bark eating in a tropical squirrel

Wild Indonesia: The Wildlife and Scenery of the Indonesian Archipelago

Solution for Siberut