Mind, Self and Society from the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist

Advances in Experimental Social Psychology continues to be one of the most sought after and most often cited series in this field. Containing contributions of major empirical and theoretical interest, this series represents the best and the brightest in new research, theory, and practice in social psychology. This serial is part of the Social Sciences package on ScienceDirect. Visit info.sciencedirect.com for more information. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology is available online on ScienceDirect - full-text online of volume 32 onward. Elsevier book series on ScienceDirect gives multiple users throughout an institution simultaneous online access to an important complement to primary research. Digital delivery ensures users reliable, 24-hour access to the latest peer-reviewed content. The Elsevier book series are compiled and written by the most highly regarded authors in their fields and are selected from across the globe using Elsevier's extensive researcher network. For more information about the Elsevier Book Series on ScienceDirect Program, please visit store.elsevier.com. * One of the most sought after and most often cited series in this field* Contains contributions of major empirical and theoretical interest* Represents the best and the brightest in new research, theory, and practice in social psychology

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Advances in experimental social psychology

In order to take advantage of the potential offered by the medium of virtual reality (VR), it will be essential to develop an understanding of how to maximize the desirable experience of "presence" in a virtual space ("being there"), and how to minimize the undesirable feeling of "cybersickness" (a constellation of discomfort symptoms experienced in VR). Although there have been frequent reports of a possible link between the observer's sense of presence and the experience of bodily discomfort in VR, the amount of literature that discusses the nature of the relationship is limited. Recent research has underlined the possibility that these variables have shared causes, and that both factors may be manipulated with a single approach. This review paper summarizes the concepts of presence and cybersickness and highlights the strengths and gaps in our understanding about their relationship. We review studies that have measured the association between presence and cybersickness, and conclude that the balance of evidence favors a negative relationship between the two factors which is driven principally by sensory integration processes. We also discuss how system immersiveness might play a role in modulating both presence and cybersickness. However, we identify a serious absence of high-powered studies that aim to reveal the nature of this relationship. Based on this evidence we propose recommendations for future studies investigating presence, cybersickness, and other related factors.

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Presence and Cybersickness in Virtual Reality Are Negatively Related: A Review

This article reviews the hypothesis that mind wandering can be integrated into executive models of attention. Evidence suggests that mind wandering shares many similarities with traditional notions of executive control. When mind wandering occurs, the executive components of attention appear to shift away from the primary task, leading to failures in task performance and superficial representations of the external environment. One challenge for incorporating mind wandering into standard executive models is that it often occurs in the absence of explicit intention--a hallmark of controlled processing. However, mind wandering, like other goal-related processes, can be engaged without explicit awareness; thus, mind wandering can be seen as a goal-driven process, albeit one that is not directed toward the primary task.

The restless mind

Virtual reality presence as a preamble of tourism experience: The role of mental imagery

Research on awe has grown exponentially in recent decades; however, few studies have considered whether awe-inspiring experiences also inspire other emotions. In two studies, we explored whether interventions targeting awe also evoke other discrete emotions. Additionally, we considered two constructs that may be associated with increases in each emotion—self-relevant thoughts and connectedness. In Study 1, we manipulated awe in virtual reality and examined the potential effects of a prototypical awe experience—a spacewalk accompanied by an audio clip of Carl Sagan’s Pale Blue Dot. In Study 2, we manipulated awe with a video depicting scenes of Earth from outer space paired with the same audio clip. Across both studies, a prototypical awe experience was associated not only with awe, but with compassion, gratitude, love, and optimism, along with connectedness and self-relevant thoughts. Furthermore, we found that increases in self-relevant thoughts and connectedness in response to the awe induction predicted increases in each emotion evoked and vice-versa. These findings suggest that experiences that are commonly considered awe-inspiring—such as viewing a picturesque landscape—may be more appropriately conceptualized more broadly as self-transcendent. More work is needed to determine whether the documented benefits of awe may be more appropriately interpreted as the benefits of self-transcendent emotions.

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The proximal experience of awe.

Immersion in a digital virtual environment (DVE) increases the likelihood that individuals will feel present in the DVE and hence respond as they would in a similar physically grounded environment. Previous research utilizing high-fidelity technology has demonstrated that by starting a virtual experience in a virtual replica of the immediate physical environment, presence is increased. The purpose of this study was to determine whether utilizing such a transitional environment to increase presence could be replicated on a significantly less immersive system--a 2D desktop monitor with mouse and keyboard for navigation. Participants began their DVE experience either in a "preamble" DVE made to look like the surrounding physical laboratory space, or in a novel DVE (i.e., a house). Then, they were given verbal instructions to leave their respective environments and told to go up a set of stairs to explore a museum. Afterward, they reported levels of immersion and presence in the latter DVE. Results demonstrated that entering a target DVE via a familiar "preamble" environment increased perceptions of reality judgment of the virtual experience, perceptions of possibility to act, and levels of presence. These results suggest that incorporating a familiar digital preamble environment as a prelude to the target DVE enables DVE designers and enthusiasts to increase presence without having to invest in more expensive hardware, but it could also augment existing immersive technology. Their efficacy may be because they offer a gradual transition into the virtual world, such that the familiarity eases users into the novel experience.

Using a preamble to increase presence in digital virtual environments

While simultaneous acquisition of electrocardiography (ECG) data during MRI is a widely used clinical technique, the effects of the MRI environment on impedance cardiography (ICG) data have not been characterized. We collected echo planar MRI scans while simultaneously recording ECG and thoracic impedance using carbon fiber electrodes and customized amplifiers. Here, we show that the key changes in impedance (dZ/dt) and features of the ECG waveforms are not obstructed during MRI. We present a method for ensemble averaging ICG/ECG signals collected during MRI and show that it performs comparably with signals collected outside the MRI environment. These results indicate that ICG can be used during MRI to measure stroke volume, cardiac output, preejection period, and left ventricular ejection time.

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Simultaneous acquisition of functional magnetic resonance images and impedance cardiography.

The current study utilized exercise self-efficacy ratings from undergraduate students to assess the factor structure of the Self-Efficacy to Regulate Exercise Scale (Bandura, 1997, 2006). An exploratory factor analysis (n = 759) indicated a two-factor model solution and three separate confirmatory factor analyses (n = 1,798) supported this assertion. However, a bifactor analysis simultaneously estimating factor loadings on a general factor and two subfactors (Emotional Issues and External Influences) indicated that the Self-Efficacy to Regulate Exercise Scale is best interpreted using the general factor and subfactors together. Additionally, structural equation models (n = 2,294) relating exercise self-efficacy and completed exercise support the assertion that a bifactor model provides the most accurate information. This study is the first to assess the factor structure of the Self-Efficacy to Regulate Exercise Scale using common factor analysis and bifactor techniques and provides evidence for the use of...

Factor Structure of the Exercise Self-Efficacy Scale

Advances in virtual environment technology, particularly digital immersive virtual environment technology, enable people to engage in increasingly compelling experiences. Such technology not only has entertainment value but also provides a powerful research platform for behavioral scientists and clinicians. Although many immersive virtual environment-based studies have been conducted in the last 20 years, investigations of psychological and physical health remain relatively rare. In short, virtual environment technology provides investigators and health care providers with a powerful tool to study motivate their research participants and patients to improve or regain health. Here, the nature of the technology, ideas for future research using it, and how it has and can be used to assess and combat the obesity epidemic sweeping the United States.

Jessica E. Cornick

Papers

The proximal experience of awe.

Using a preamble to increase presence in digital virtual environments

Simultaneous acquisition of functional magnetic resonance images and impedance cardiography.

Factor Structure of the Exercise Self-Efficacy Scale

Are Virtual Environments the New Frontier in Obesity Management