Critical Race Theory and Education: History, Theory, and Implications

Communication scholars have often overlooked the importance of whiteness as an influence in their research. In this essay, we explore the territory of whiteness in order to map the discursive space it occupies. This mapping of the discursive space, or territory, of whiteness is the first step in the process of exposing whiteness as a rhetorical construction. We then discuss some of the rhetorical strategies through which whiteness resecures its discursive space. We conclude with three aspects of reflexivity that offer directions for further research.

Whiteness: A strategic rhetoric

I review the debate over multicultural education in this article, state that all knowledge reflects the values and interests of its creators, and illustrate how the debate between the multiculturalists and the Western traditionalists is rooted in their conflicting conceptions about the nature of knowledge and their divergent political and social interests. I present a typology that describes five types of knowledge and contend that each type should be a part of the school, college, and university curriculum.

The Canon Debate, Knowledge Construction, and Multicultural Education

After more than 15 years of comparative study of minority education, I concluded that I would have to study two additional factors, namely collective identity and cultural frame of reference to more fully explain the variability in minority school performance. In 1986, I published an article with Signithia Fordham on how “oppositional collective identity and cultural frame of reference” or oppositional culture contributed to Black students' school performance. Many critics have misinterpreted the joint article and even constructed a different thesis of oppositional culture than the one we proposed in the joint article. The thesis is that Black students do not aspire to or strive to get good grades because it is perceived as “acting White.” Furthermore, they have translated my cultural–ecological theory into an oppositional culture theory. I am writing this paper to correct the misinterpretations of the joint article in order to advance scholarship on the subject. I begin by explaining the meaning of collective identity and distinguishing it from other concepts of identity. Specifically, I summarize the evolution of oppositional collective identity and cultural frame of reference or oppositional culture among Black Americans and discuss the Black experience with the “burden of ‘acting White’” in the contemporary United States. Finally, I suggest some continuity between Black historical and community experiences with the “burden of ‘acting White,’” as experienced by Black students.

Collective Identity and the Burden of "Acting White" in Black History, Community, and Education.

In 1993 President Clinton nominated Professor Lani Guinier of the University of Pennsylvania Law School to be assistant attorney general in charge of the Civil Rights Division. Her nomination for this government post resulted in a large con­ troversy centering on her scholarship (Guinier, 1991a, 1991b). Guinier's research, which examined voting systems, asked the following question: Are there factors that guarantee winners and losers? She contended that such factors do exist and that race is too often an important factor in the construction of voting districts, the outcome of elections, and ultimately political influence, including the control of educational systems. Guinier (1989) argued that the political system must be rejuvenated to be more inclusive. Specifically, she called for the creation of electoral schemes that would allow Blacks to elect candidates representing their interests. These schemes—proportional voting, in particular—were already a reality in many south­ ern localities and had received endorsement from the Reagan-Bush Justice Department and the Supreme Court. Professor Guinier also was critical of political bargaining between leading civil rights groups, African American politicians, and Republicans that resulted in the construction of guaranteed African American leg­ islative districts and conservative White districts in adjacent jurisdictions. Guinier's position sparked great controversy among both liberals and conservatives. In the epilogue of Racial Formation in the United States, Omi and Winant (1994) posited that this controversy had little to do with Guinier's position on the issue of voting districts; rather, her \"sin\" was her eagerness to discuss the changing dimen­ sions of race in contemporary U.S. politics. Omi and Winant (1994) remarked:

Chapter 4: Critical Race Theory and Education: History, Theory, and Implications:

\"Far more inclusive and informative than previous books on the subject\". -- The New York Times

Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies, and Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films@@@The Only Good Indian... The Hollywood Gospel@@@Everything and Nothing: The Dorothy Dandridge Tragedy@@@Blacks in American Films: Today and Yesterday@@@Blacks in the Cinema: The Changing Image

Jim Pines

Papers

Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies, and Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films@@@The Only Good Indian... The Hollywood Gospel@@@Everything and Nothing: The Dorothy Dandridge Tragedy@@@Blacks in American Films: Today and Yesterday@@@Blacks in the Cinema: The Changing Image