Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a single-stranded positive-sense RNA virus. HEV can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis, with the latter usually occurring in immunocompromised patients. Modes of transmission range from the classic fecal–oral route or zoonotic route, to relatively recently recognized but increasingly common routes, such as via the transfusion of blood products or organ transplantation. Extrahepatic manifestations, such as neurological, kidney and hematological abnormalities, have been documented in some limited cases, typically in patients with immune suppression. HEV has demonstrated extensive genomic diversity and a variety of HEV strains have been identified worldwide from human populations as well as growing numbers of animal species. The genetic variability and constant evolution of HEV contribute to its physiopathogenesis and adaptation to new hosts. This review describes the recent classification of the Hepeviridae family, global genotype distribution, clinical significance of HEV genotype and genomic variability and evolution of HEV.

Genetic Variability and Evolution of Hepatitis E Virus.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging zoonotic pathogen transmitting both human to human via the fecal oral route and from animals to humans through feces, direct contact, and consumption of contaminated meat products. Understanding the host range of the virus is critical for determining where potential threats to human health may be emerging from and where potential reservoirs for viral persistence in the environment may be hiding. Initially thought to be a human specific disease endemic to developing countries, the identification of swine as a primary host for genotypes 3 and 4 HEV in industrialized countries has begun a long journey of discovering novel strains of HEV and their animal hosts. As we continue identifying new strains of HEV in disparate animal species, it is becoming abundantly clear that HEV has a broad host range and many of these HEV strains can cross between differing animal species. These cross-species transmitting strains pose many unique challenges to human health as they are often unrecognized as sources of viral transmission.

The Current Host Range of Hepatitis E Viruses.

Globally, Hepatitis E virus (HEV) causes over 20 million cases worldwide. HEV is an emerging and endemic pathogen within economically developed countries, chiefly resulting from infections with genotype 3 (G3) HEV. G3 HEV is known to be a zoonotic pathogen, with a broad host range. The primary source of HEV within more economically developed countries is considered to be pigs, and consumption of pork products is a significant risk factor and known transmission route for the virus to humans. However, other foods have also been implicated in the transmission of HEV to humans. This review consolidates the information available regarding transmission of HEV and looks to identify gaps where further research is required to better understand how HEV is transmitted to humans through food.

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The Foodborne Transmission of Hepatitis E Virus to Humans.

Assessment of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in the edible goat products pointed out a risk for human infection in Upper Egypt

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a cosmopolitan foodborne pathogen. The viral agent infects humans through the consumption of contaminated food (uncooked or undercooked). Most cases of infection are asymptomatic and for this reason, this pathology is considered underdiagnosed. Domestic and wild animals are considered natural reservoirs: that is, domestic pig, wild boar, sheep, goat, deer, rabbit, and so on. Therefore, various work categories are at risk: that is, veterinarians, farmers, hunters, slaughterhouse workers, and so on. In these last decades, researchers found a high percentage of positivity to the molecular viral detection in several food matrices included: ready-to-eat products, processed meat products, milk, and shellfish. This review aims to provide an international scenario regarding HEV ribonucleic acid (RNA) detection in several foodstuffs. From this investigative perspective, the study aims to highlight various gaps of the current knowledge about technologies treatments' impact on viral loads. The purpose was also to provide an innovative point of view "One Health"-based, pointing out the strategic role of environmental safety.

Hepatitis E Virus in the Food of Animal Origin: A Review

Background. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a significant pathogen of viral hepatitis and can be transmitted through fecal-oral route. Epidemiological data concerning HEV in goats, however, are relatively sparse to date. Here, the prevalence and characteristics of HEV isolated from goats at slaughterhouse were investigated in Tai’an region, China. Methods. Anti-HEV immunoglobulin G (IgG) in blood samples and HEV RNA in the liver samples were determined by using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and a nested reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), respectively. In addition, partial nucleotide sequences of open reading frame 2 (ORF-2) of HEV isolates were analyzed. Results. Fifty goat blood samples (46.7%, 50/120) were masculine for anti-HEV IgG. HEV RNA was detected in 2 liver samples (4.0%, 2/50) and belonged to genotype 4 subtype 4 h, with high identity (91.2–93%) with cow HEV strains detected in the same province, China. Conclusions. These findings demonstrated that goats may be an important reservoir for HEV and can become a major source of HEV infection in humans via food chain.

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Jingjing Cong

Papers

Detection and Characterization of Hepatitis E Virus in Goats at Slaughterhouse in Tai'an Region, China.