4. How does natural variation affect evolution? What are the sources of genetic variation within populations? Explain how each increases genetic variation. Without natural variation, all organisms would be identical. Therefore, no organism would have an advantage over another. If a change occurred in the ecosystem the entire species would be wiped out. Genetic variation arises from: Recombination during sexual reproduction – genes are put into new combinations during Meiosis, producing new phenotypes Mutation – mistakes are made in the copying of DNA Lateral gene transfer – genes are passed between prokaryotic organisms

The Theory of Evolution

Until the 1960s, academic criminology was confined by decades of repression in a theoretical and political cage. Obviously, given the repression, one could hardly have expected things to turn out otherwise. Indeed, considering criminology's organic connections with the most coercive political institutions in our country, it is remarkable that a radical criminology materialized at all. The reader is undoubtedly familiar with the political events energizing radical criminology at Berkeley. It appeared in the Sixties when political movements were scourging American institutions; when the endemic causes of gender, racial, and class inequality were being laid bare; when crimes against humanity and violations of constitutional law were being exposed at the highest levels of government; and when popular rage over the carnage produced by the U.S. government in Southeast Asia, Latin America, and Africa had ruptured the political fabric of our country. Nothing written previously in student dissertations or faculty publications at U.C. Berkeley's School of Criminology would have predicted the radical turn taken, under these conditions, to the left. Yet this change could not endure. California officials and university bureaucrats overwhelmed the radicals even though sympathetic faculty and thousands of students in other departments supported them. A law-and-order alliance formed by liberal academics joined the bureaucrats and validated their decision to deny radicals a place at Berkeley.(1) Crime and Social Justice was born under these circumstances. In the spring of 1973, Hi Schwendinger began to talk about the need for a journal devoted to radical criminology. He reached out to people who might join the editorial collective, although obtaining their support could not be taken for granted. While some consented to join without qualification, others, noting that the student-run Berkeley journal, Issues in Criminology, had shifted to the left, felt that a new radical journal would be redundant.(2) Some declined to join because they were over-committed, coping with academic obligations and antiwar activities, prison reforms, legislative reforms, or fighting for racial and gender equality. Yet a working collective was eventually pulled together. Moreover, Julia Schwendinger and Tommie Hannigan used their funding contacts, made in the early 1970s for the Bay Area Women Against Rape, to obtain seed money for the initial editions.(3) When eliciting support for the journal, Hi tried to explain the role that it would play by distinguishing it from academic journals, including Issues in Criminology. The journal, he said, would certainly want to publish theoretical articles that contributed to the advancement of criminology or innovative research articles regardless of the author's ideological standpoint. However, its form and content, in other respects, would be unique. The lavish use of photos, graphics, and poetry would impart a dramatic character that would make it attractive to students and activists and sharply differentiate it from other criminology journals. Moreover, the contents of the journal would, despite a preference for Marxian theory, provide a vehicle for writers with varying left viewpoints and would be directed at a broader audience. The journal would even reprint works that provided historical evidence for a publication on crime and punishment, but written by people with such standpoints outside of the academy. It would provide space for describing and evaluating agencies and reform movements - writings that were not restricted by technocratic standards or controlled by the government. Finally, he believed that the creation of the journal should be regarded as a vehicle for expanding the corps of radical criminologists in the U.S. Although the journal collective was formed during the spring, it did not commence work immediately. The Schwendingers spent the summer visiting criminologists in England, Germany, Austria, and Netherlands. …

https://www.jstor.org/stable/info/29767145

The First Edition

A serious problem in the transport system analysis is to find a suitable methodology for modelling the management presented in real systems It is hard to create an "intelligent" algorithm of dispatcher - an algorithm giving significantly better results from pure random algorithms In the paper we propose a multilayer perceptron approach to solve this problem The neural network is learned using a genetic algorithm A fitness function is defined by business service requirements of discrete transport system (DTS) The proposed approach is based on modelling and simulating of the system behaviour Monte Carlo simulation is a tool for DTS performance metric calculation No restriction on the system structure and on a kind of distribution is the main advantage of the method The system is described by the formal model, which includes reliability and functional parameters of DTS The proposed, novelty approach can serve for practical solving of essential management problems related to an organization of transport systems

Soft computing approach to discrete transport system management

If a computer game company wants to stay competitive they must offer something extra. For many years, this extra has often been synonymous with better graphics. Lately, and thanks to the Internet, the focus has shifted in favour of more multi-player support. This also means that the requirements of one-player games increases. Our proposal, to meet these new requirements, is that future game AI is made more human-like. One way to achieve this is believed to be the use of learning AI techniques, such as genetic algorithms and neural networks. In this thesis we will present the results from an experiment aiming at testing strategy game AI. Test persons played against traditional strategy game AI, a genetic algorithm AI, and other humans to see if they experienced any differences in the behaviour of the opponents.

Johan W. Andersson

Papers

Human-like Behaviour in Real-Time Strategy Games : An Experiment With Genetic Algorithms