ii Acknowledgements v Introduction 2 Chapter One: Between Worlds: The Unmaking of a New Englander 9 Chapter Two: The “Principle of Hope”: Exploiting Opportunities on the Periphery of the Old South 44 Chapter Three: Culture in the Old Southwest: Expanding the Boundaries of Southern Identity 79 Chapter Four: A “Happy Home amid the Deep Green Forests of the Glorious West”: Society on Slavery’s Border 114 Chapter Five: “To be once more free & enjoy a quiet mind”: The Social Economy of Slavery and Freedom 150 Chapter Six: At Home in Northern Kentucky: Finding Cultural Fulfillment Across the River 184 Chapter Seven: The Border of Unrest: Political Realignments on the Eve of War 216 Chapter Eight: “Be Tender of Pa’s Feelings”: The Civil War and Reconstruction in a Divided State 235 Conclusion 276 Bibliography 282

Seeking the Middle in a Sectionalizing America: James Dinsmore and the Shaping of Regional Cultural Economies, 1816-1872

During the colonial era the Miskito Indians of eastern Nicaragua established fruitful commercial ties with English colonists in eastern Central America and Jamaica. Among the diverse items they traded with the Europeans were captives obtained by slave raids into surrounding areas. For Miskito society slaving also coincided with demographic growth and ecological readaptation. For English settlers in Jamaica, indigenes from Central America provided a cheap source of labor early in the transition to a plantation economy. Comparable situations existed in the southeastern United States and the Orinoco region of South America, where native groups friendly with the British attacked other indigenous peoples with the intent to capture slaves for sale to foreign colonists.

Miskito Slaving and Culture Contact: Ethnicity and Opportunity in an Expanding Population

This dissertation reevaluates the consequences of the American Revolution by examining how indigenous peoples preserved their role as regional powers in the decades following the birth of the United States. Focusing on the Creek Indians of the present-day southeastern United States, I demonstrate that they maintained ties with Britons, Spaniards, and other Native peoples, employing these connections to their advantage. Creeks created borderlands that connected their societies with those of the British and Spanish Caribbean. The Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of Florida and their surrounding waters became zones of encounter and exchange between Native peoples, British wreckers from the Bahamas, and Spanish fishermen from Cuba. The networks created through these borderlands show that many elements of colonial-era diplomacy, where Native peoples held significant power in relationships with Europeans and Euroamericans, continued in force well after American independence. Creek diplomacy during this era engaged with European international law and concepts of nationhood in ways that compare to and were in dialogue with the efforts of the United States. Both Creeks and Americans sought to negotiate as unitary nations because the international order of their era demanded it. Each consisted of disparate peoples who had little sense of common interest or cohesion prior to the mid-eighteenth century. Creeks identified as members of towns and clans rather than as a singular nation. Any political unity between the Creek towns developed only in response to challenges presented by European colonization. Likewise, Americans identified more with their home states or local communities than the nation as a whole. Over the course of the late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth centuries, both Creeks and Americans struggled to find ways to balance local interests with the diplomatic needs created by the Atlantic community to which they belonged. In this sense, Creek diplomacy was decidedly modern and conversant with legal and political developments throughout the Atlantic world.

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Muskogee Internationalism in An Age of Revolution, 1763-1818

Networks in negotiation: The role of family and kinship in intercultural diplomacy on the trans-Appalachian frontier, 1680--1840

MY FIRST ACQUAINTANCE with Indians "at home" was in the twenties when, as a graduate student under the tutelage of Frank G. Speck, I began visiting the St. Francis Abenaki at Odanak, Quebec, Canada. In this little Indian community an Algonkian language could still be heard, but the dominant speech was French-Canadian, and many persons could also speak English. There were a few old-timers left who occasionally hunted and trapped, although there was little ostensible evidence of an aboriginal mode of life. The Abenaki had been Christianized for generations, the majority of them being devout Roman Catholics. Across the railroad track was a typical French-Canadian village. In short, the St. Francis Abenaki were a highly acculturated group of Indians.' I did not go there to study acculturation, however, for this was a decade before studies of acculturation had been "legitiA. IRVING HALLOWELL is Professor Emeritus of Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and curator of Social Anthropology at the University Museum. He received his M.A. and Ph.D. from this University and an Honorary Sc.D. (1963). With the exception of three years at Northwestern University (1944--47) he has been an active member of the Anthropology Department there from 1923-63. In addition, he has taught at Swarthmore College, Bryn Mawr, Columbia, and the Universities of California (Berkeley) and Washington. Currently he is conducting a seminar for selected graduate students at Teniple University, as Adjunct Professor of Sociology. Dr. Hallowell is a member of the Permanent Council of the International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences and a past president of the American Anthropological Association, the American Folklore Society, and the Society for Projective Techniques. He was chairman of the division of Anthropology and Psychology of the National Research Council, 1946--49, and has been chairman of the Board of Directors of the Human Relations Area Files since 1957. From 1950-55 he was editor of the Viking Fund Monographs in Anthropology (Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research). He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and in 1955 was the recipient of the Viking Medal and Award in General Anthropology. Dr. Hallowell's field work has been principally conducted among the Northern Ojibwa of Canada and other Algonkian peoples. His focal points of professional interest, as represented in papers published in journals and symposia, have included kinship and social organization, folklore, culture and personality, the psychological dimension of human evolution and the history of anthropology. A collection of selected papers is to be found in Culture and Experience (1955). Monographic publications are Bear Ceremonialism in the Northern Hemisphere (1926) and The Role of Conjuring in Saultean Society (1942). A. Irving Hallowell's paper is the fifth in a series, edited by Francis L. K. Hsu and Alan P. Merriam specially prepared to honor Melville J. Herskovits. The entire series, when completed, will constitute a new type of Festschrift (CA 4:92). 1 For information on the history and ethnography of this group see Leger (1929), Maurault (1866), and Fried (1955). Gordon M. Day, in a recent article on the relations of the St. Francis Abenaki to Dartmouth College (1959), writes: "These were the Abenakis whom the Jesuits extolled for their native mildness, their exemplary piety, and whom Canadian historians lauded for their loyalty and military qualities in the service of New France. These were the model converts whose conversion consoled the Fathers for the destruction of the Huron Nation by the Iroquois and the debauching of the Algonquins of Three Rivers by the fur traders."

John Anthony Caruso

Papers

The Southern Frontier