http://www.iowaaces360.org/uploads/1/0/9/2/10925571/relationship_of_childhood_abuse_and..._1998.pdf

Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study

Background: This study presents estimates of lifetime and 12-month prevalence of 14 DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders from the National Comorbidity Survey, the first survey to administer a structured psychiatric interview to a national probability sample in the United States. Methods: The DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders among persons aged 15 to 54 years in the noninstitutionalized civilian population of the United States were assessed with data collected by lay interviewers using a revised version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Results: Nearly 50% of respondents reported at least one lifetime disorder, and close to 30% reported at least one 12-month disorder. The most common disorders were major depressive episode, alcohol dependence, social phobia, and simple phobia. More than half of all lifetime disorders occurred in the 14% of the population who had a history of three or more comorbid disorders. These highly comorbid people also included the vast majority of people with severe disorders. Less than 40% of those with a lifetime disorder had ever received professional treatment, and less than 20% of those with a recent disorder had been in treatment during the past 12 months. Consistent with previous risk factor research, it was found that women had elevated rates of affective disorders and anxiety disorders, that men had elevated rates of substance use disorders and antisocial personality disorder, and that most disorders declined with age and with higher socioeconomic status. Conclusions: The prevalence of psychiatric disorders is greater than previously thought to be the case. Furthermore, this morbidity is more highly concentrated than previously recognized in roughly one sixth of the population who have a history of three or more comorbid disorders. This suggests that the causes and consequences of high comorbidity should be the focus of research attention. The majority of people with psychiatric disorders fail to obtain professional treatment. Even among people with a lifetime history of three or more comorbid disorders, the proportion who ever obtain specialty sector mental health treatment is less than 50%. These results argue for the importance of more outreach and more research on barriers to professional help-seeking.

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Lifetime and 12-Month Prevalence of DSM-III-R Psychiatric Disorders in the United States: Results From the National Comorbidity Survey

Background Little is known about the general population prevalence or severity of DSM-IV mental disorders. Objective To estimate 12-month prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of DSM-IV anxiety, mood, impulse control, and substance disorders in the recently completed US National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Design and Setting Nationally representative face-to-face household survey conducted between February 2001 and April 2003 using a fully structured diagnostic interview, the World Health Organization World Mental Health Survey Initiative version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Participants Nine thousand two hundred eighty-two English-speaking respondents 18 years and older. Main Outcome Measures Twelve-month DSM-IV disorders. Results Twelve-month prevalence estimates were anxiety, 18.1%; mood, 9.5%; impulse control, 8.9%; substance, 3.8%; and any disorder, 26.2%. Of 12-month cases, 22.3% were classified as serious; 37.3%, moderate; and 40.4%, mild. Fifty-five percent carried only a single diagnosis; 22%, 2 diagnoses; and 23%, 3 or more diagnoses. Latent class analysis detected 7 multivariate disorder classes, including 3 highly comorbid classes representing 7% of the population. Conclusion Although mental disorders are widespread, serious cases are concentrated among a relatively small proportion of cases with high comorbidity.

/pdf/prevalence-severity-and-comorbidity-of-12-month-dsm-iv-54fahxwd1s.pdf

Prevalence, Severity, and Comorbidity of 12-Month DSM-IV Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication

Background: Data were obtained on the general population epidemiology of DSM-III-R posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), including information on estimated lifetime prevalence, the kinds of traumas most often associated with PTSD, sociodemographic correlates, the comorbidity of PTSD with other lifetime psychiatric disorders, and the duration of an index episode. Methods: Modified versions of the DSM-III-R PTSD module from the Diagnostic Interview Schedule and of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview were administered to a representative national sample of 5877 persons aged 15 to 54 years in the part II subsample of the National Comorbidity Survey. Results: The estimated lifetime prevalence of PTSD is 7.8%. Prevalence is elevated among women and the previously married. The traumas most commonly associated with PTSD are combat exposure and witnessing among men and rape and sexual molestation among women. Posttraumatic stress disorder is strongly comorbid with other lifetime DSM-III-R disorders. Survival analysis shows that more than one third of people with an index episode of PTSD fail to recover even after many years. Conclusions: Posttraumatic stress disorder is more prevalent than previously believed, and is often persistent. Progress in estimating age-at-onset distributions, cohort effects, and the conditional probabilities of PTSD from different types of trauma will require future epidemiologic studies to assess PTSD for all lifetime traumas rather than for only a small number of retrospectively reported "most serious" traumas. (Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1995;52:1048-1060)

Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey.

Background. A 10-question screening scale of psychological distress and a six-question short-form scale embedded within the 10-question scale were developed for the redesigned US National Health Interview Survey (NHIS). Methods. Initial pilot questions were administered in a US national mail survey (N fl 1401). A reduced set of questions was subsequently administered in a US national telephone survey (N fl 1574). The 10-question and six-question scales, which we refer to as the K10 and K6, were constructed from the reduced set of questions based on Item Response Theory models. The scales were subsequently validated in a two-stage clinical reappraisal survey (N fl 1000 telephone screening interviews in the first stage followed by N fl 153 face-to-face clinical interviews in the second stage that oversampled first-stage respondents who screened positive for emotional problems) in a local convenience sample. The second-stage sample was administered the screening scales along with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID). The K6 was subsequently included in the 1997 (N fl 36116) and 1998 (N fl 32440) US National Health Interview Survey, while the K10 was included in the 1997 (N fl 10641) Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. Results. Both the K10 and K6 have good precision in the 90th‐99th percentile range of the population distribution (standard errors of standardized scores in the range 0‐20‐0‐25) as well as consistent psychometric properties across major sociodemographic subsamples. The scales strongly discriminate between community cases and non-cases of DSM-IV}SCID disorders, with areas under the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve of 0‐87‐0‐88 for disorders having Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scores of 0‐70 and 0‐95‐0‐96 for disorders having GAF scores of 0‐50. Conclusions. The brevity, strong psychometric properties, and ability to discriminate DSM-IV cases from non-cases make the K10 and K6 attractive for use in general-purpose health surveys. The scales are already being used in annual government health surveys in the US and Canada as well as in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. Routine inclusion of either the K10 or K6 in clinical studies would create an important, and heretofore missing, crosswalk between community and clinical epidemiology.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/F141675CCD0E08C0FB98E01C006B4E0D/S0033291702006074a.pdf/div-class-title-short-screening-scales-to-monitor-population-prevalences-and-trends-in-non-specific-psychological-distress-div.pdf

Short screening scales to monitor population prevalences and trends in non-specific psychological distress.

• A new interview schedule allows lay interviewers or clinicians to make psychiatric diagnoses according to DSM-III criteria, Feighner criteria, and Research Diagnostic Criteria. It is being used in a set of epidemiological studies sponsored by the National Institute of Mental Health Center for Epidemiological Studies. Its accuracy has been evaluated in a test-retest design comparing independent administrations by psychiatrists and lay interviewers to 216 subjects (inpatients, outpatients, ex-patients, and nonpatients).

https://jamanetwork.com/HttpHandlers/ArticlePdfHandler.ashx?journal=PSYCH&articleId=492525&pdfFileName=archpsyc_38_4_001.pdf

National Institute of Mental Health diagnostic interview schedule: Its history, characteristics, and validity.

• The Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI), written at the request of the World Health Organization/US Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration Task Force on Psychiatric Assessment Instruments, combines questions from the Diagnostic Interview Schedule with questions designed to elicit Present State Examination items. It is fully structured to allow administration by lay interviewers and scoring of diagnoses by computer. A special Substance Abuse Module covers tobacco, alcohol, and other drug abuse in considerable detail, allowing the assessment of the quality and severity of dependence and its course. This article describes the design and development of the CIDI and the current field testing of a slightly reduced "core" version. The field test is being conducted in 19 centers around the world to assess the interviews' reliability and its acceptability to clinicians and the general populace in different cultures and to provide data on which to base revisions that may be found necessary. In addition, questions to assess International Classification of Diseases , ninth revision, and the revised DSM-III diagnoses are being written. If all goes well, the CIDI will allow investigators reliably to assess mental disorders according to the most widely accepted nomenclatures in many different populations and cultures.

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/PSYCH/articlepdf/494437/archpsyc_45_12_003.pdf

The Composite International Diagnostic Interview: An Epidemiologic Instrument Suitable for Use in Conjunction With Different Diagnostic Systems and in Different Cultures

• Lifetime rates are presented for 15 DSM-III psychiatric diagnoses evaluated in three large household samples on the basis of lay interviewers' use of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule. The most common diagnoses were alcohol abuse and dependence, phobia, major depressive episode, and drug abuse and dependence. Disorders that most clearly predominated in men were antisocial personality and alcohol abuse and dependence. Disorders that most clearly predominated in women were depressive episodes and phobias. The age group with highest rates for most disorders was found to be young adults (aged 25 to 44 years). Correlates with race, education, and urbanization are presented.

Lifetime Prevalence of Specific Psychiatric Disorders in Three Sites

A relationship between cigarette smoking and major depressive disorder was suggested in previous work involving nonrandomly selected samples. We conducted a test of this association, employing population-based data (n = 3213) collected between 1980 and 1983 in the St Louis Epidemiologic Catchment Area Survey of the National Institute of Mental Health. A history of regular smoking was observed more frequently among individuals who had experienced major depressive disorder at some time in their lives than among individuals who had never experienced major depression or among individuals with no psychiatric diagnosis. Smokers with major depression were also less successful at their attempts to quit than were either of the comparison groups. Gender differences in rates of smoking and of smoking cessation observed in the larger population were not evident among the depressed group. Furthermore, the association between cigarette smoking and major depression was not ubiquitous across all psychiatric diagnoses. Other data are cited indicating that when individuals with a history of depression stop smoking, depressive symptoms and, in some cases, serious major depression may ensue. ( JAMA . 1990;264:1546-1549)

Smoking, smoking cessation, and major depression.

Because it corrects for chance agreement, kappa (kappa) is a useful statistic for calculating interrater concordance. However, kappa has been criticized because its computed value is a function not only of sensitivity and specificity, but also the prevalence, or base rate, of the illness of interest in the particular population under study. For example, it has been shown for a hypothetical case in which sensitivity and specificity remain constant at .95 each, that kappa falls from .81 to .14 when the prevalence drops from 50% to 1%. Thus, differing values of kappa may be entirely due to differences in prevalence. Calculation of agreement presents different problems depending on whether one is studying reliability or validity. We discuss quantification of agreement in the pure validity case, the pure reliability case, and those studies that fall somewhere between. As a way of minimizing the base rate problem, we propose a statistic for the quantification of agreement (the Y statistic), which can be related to kappa but which is completely independent of prevalence in the case of validity studies and relatively so in the case of reliability.

John E. Helzer

Papers

National Institute of Mental Health diagnostic interview schedule: Its history, characteristics, and validity.

The Composite International Diagnostic Interview: An Epidemiologic Instrument Suitable for Use in Conjunction With Different Diagnostic Systems and in Different Cultures

Lifetime Prevalence of Specific Psychiatric Disorders in Three Sites

Smoking, smoking cessation, and major depression.

A proposed solution to the base rate problem in the kappa statistic.