A vital step in the development of an equal partnership for minorities in the academic, social, and economic life of the United States involves moving away from assumptions of the linear model of cultural acquisition. In this article we review the literature on the psychological impact of being bicultural. Assimilation, acculturation, alternation, multicultural, and fusion models that have been used to describe the psychological processes, social experiences, and individual challenges and obstacles of being bicultural are reviewed and summarized for their contributions and implications for investigations of the psychological impact of biculturalism. Emphasis is given to the alternation model, which posits that an individual is able to gain competence within 2 cultures without losing his or her cultural identity or having to choose one culture over the other. Finally, a hypothetical model outlining the dimensions of bicultural competence is presented.

Psychological impact of biculturalism: Evidence and theory.

The authors investigated the process of cultural adjustment among 13 Korean immigrant youths using consensual qualitative research (C. E. Hill, B. J. Thompson, & E. N. Williams, 1997). Results indicate that Korean youth are expected to negotiate and shift their identities to meet differing expectations across various interpersonal contexts. Participants also report struggling to balance “American” and “Korean” cultural values and norms and to use social support networks, such as family and friends, to deal with the stress of acculturation.

The cultural negotiations of Korean immigrant youth

This study examined how acculturation styles are related to Korean immigrant mothers’ parenting and play attitudes and their young children’s social and play behavior. 108 Korean-American and 52 European-American mothers completed the Parents as Teacher Inventory and a play questionnaire. Observers recorded children’s social and play behavior during free play activities in their preschool, and teachers rated their social behavior. Korean-American mothers completed an acculturation measure. Results showed Korean-American mothers who had an ‘assimilated’ acculturation style, were more accepting and encouraging of children’s creativity and play, and reported more parent-child play in the home than mothers with an integrated, marginal, or separated acculturation styles. Children of assimilated and integrated mothers engaged in more frequent pretend play and were rated by their teachers as being more difficult. The results suggest there are distinct cultures of family life and childhood that manifest themselves as Korean immigrant families individually adapt to life in the U.S. The findings support the importance of examining cultural differences that exist between people whose ancestry can be traced to the same nationality.

Acculturation and Korean‐American Children’s Social and Play Behavior

Over the last 15 years researchers have taken an increased interest in studying the large pool of recent Korean immigrants. This analysis concentrates on finding how first generation Korean Americans relate and interact with their second generation counterparts. Using studies on the adjustment of first generation Korean immigrants and the levels of their success, the dynamics of Korean family living in America are analyzed. A main objective is to illustrate and highlight the sources of conflict between parent and child. First generation Korean immigrants, struggling to overcome language barriers and cultural differences, often overlook the needs of their second generation children, who are also trying to adjust. Second generation Korean Americans strive to adapt in order to meet the demands of mainstream American society. Coupled with the pressure of their beckoning ethnicity, the children of first generation Korean. Americans are forced to merge two vastly different cultures. Korean culture is strongly influenced by Confucianism and its traditional values and family structure. Economic pressures on women to work, racism and prejudice, and the conflicts children observe between traditional values and those of the dominant society contribute to the difficulties of balancing the two cultures. (Contains 35 references.) (Author/SLD) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ****************************A**AAAA,',AAAAAAA.*AAAA********************** The Korean American Family: Assimilation and Its Toll on the First and Second Generation Relationship Joann J. Hong Schwartz Library, C.W. Post Campus Long Island University Steve Hong University of Pennsylvania U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) )(This document has been reproduced as received from the person or organization originating it. Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality. Points of view or opinions stated in thisdocument do not necessarily represent official OE RI position or policy. AND PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) Mailing Address: Joann J. Hong Schwartz Library, C.W. Post Campus Long Island University Brookville, NY 11548

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The Korean American Family: Assimilation and Its Toll on the First and Second Generation Relationship.

Korean immigrants are motivated to accept new cultural perspectives and/or transform their own cultural values into those of their new country. During this acculturation process, they encounter cultural differences, make adaptations, and thus may experience positive changes in social relationships, coping resources, personal strength, and cultural knowledge. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the dimensions of acculturation and personal growth. The results indicated that two dimensions of acculturation (e.g., self-control and collectivism), age, and length of stay were predictors of personal growth that involves social relationships, personal resources, life philosophy, and coping skills. This study suggests that high scores on two acculturation dimensions indicated lower acculturation, which predicts personal growth.

Exploratory examination of the relationship between acculturation and personal growth among Korean immigrants

The purpose of this study was to see what was happening to the newly arrived Korean-American high school immigrant students in the Aurora Public Schools. Were these students being assimilated into the American culture? Was this process of culture change causing them problems such as acculturative stress and feelings of marginality? The study led to the following conclusions: These students were bilingual and bicultural as well as in a marginal situation i.e. between two cultures. However, they did not seem to have many negative characteristics but their bilingual-biculturalism was accompanied by positive outcomes and positive self concept. Their marginal situation was not a negative status. These Korean-American high school students retained their culture and language while adding on the culture and language of the dominant group. Bilingual-biculturalism seemed to be related to preserving a positive and healthy self concept in a marginal situation.

John Golden

Papers

Acculturation, Biculturalism and Marginality: A Study of Korean American High School Students